By Elena Mokeeva,
SEM Consultant
e.mokeeva@e3internet.com
Today every self-respecting company understands the advantages and power of the internet and runs one or several web sites advertising its products or services online. We all want to be recognised worldwide and invest a lion's share of our budget in offline international marketing.
At the same time we often forget about the advantages of international internet marketing. All that we can think of is creating another .com website in English, adding the word "international" to its title. Why do we forget that one third of all internet users do not speak English, and thus our "international" site is passing by all this mass of potential clients (business partners)? With constantly growing quantity and quality of non-English material on the Net they are more likely to surf in their own language.
Today a multilingual website is becoming a necessity for international business due to a number of convincing reasons:
SEO Marketing. Multilingual web sites allow you to enter new markets. Local language search engines will index your site and give you new links from within this market area. In most non-English speaking countries, regional search engines in their native language play much greater role than English-speaking Google, Yahoo and MSN. Hence, you gain better positions, more new visitors to your site (i.e. more potential customers) and more sales.
Company Image.
Multilingual sites create an image of a serious and respectable international business, and will win over visitors from companies who have not made this effort.
Customer-centric approach.
It allows your visitors to surf quickly and efficiently in their own language. This gives your company and products an advantage over your less prepared competitors.
Now you clearly understand that website translation can be a great help in attracting foreign public to your business. However it has to be done in such a way that people will end up buying your product.
To have a website translated means much more than get mere text translation. There are numerous factors that have to be taken into consideration. Actually, it is more correctly to speak about website localisation, when you want the site successfully working in the market of your target countries.
Localisation is defined as modifying a product to make it usable and suitable to a target market.
First of all, it implies culture-centric translation. Perfect culture-centric translation makes the reader feel as if the content was not translated, but originally written in the target language. It takes into consideration the culture, style and language of the target audience.
Using electronic translations for this purpose is not a good idea. The decision to have your site translated by a human being, preferably a native speaker, familiar with the culture, terminology and sayings of the target language, is an ideal one.
Then, website localisation takes into account the appearance of your web pages. Are there pictures, colours or images that would cause offence? A good website translation company will analyse your site and offer you a cultural applicability consultation.
Further more, decent website translators will offer an after-care service that assists in helping you with the small changes in future.
Some translation companies will even provide you with internet marketing services to help your site achieve high visibility in the target country.
If you are serious about promoting your business among foreign internet users it is best to trust your website translation to proven professionals. The leading UK translation company, Lingo24 (http://www.lingo24.com) can supply your company with these services.
Professional website localisation and culture-centric translation can become a very promising perspective for your business.
http://www.lingo24.com/multilingual_website_design.html
http://www.lingo24.com/professional_translation.html
See the author's biography here: http://www.e3internet.com/company-information/biographies/elena/
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Showing posts with label about languages. Show all posts
Showing posts with label about languages. Show all posts
Friday, June 5, 2009
Saturday, April 11, 2009
Bilingualism
By Usmang Salle Leinyui
Freelance Translator
English to French, French to English
Bamenda-Cameroon
usleinyui@yahoo.com
1. INTRODUCTION:
Bilingualism is a sociolinguistic phenomenon that has received much scholarly attention, not only because of its importance in communications but also because of political and demographic considerations that have led many sociologists to brand some languages as major and others as minor in multiliguistic settings. This classification forces African languages into subordinate positions on the grounds that only a few of them have been codified, and fewer still are used in instruction; hence the superiority of European languages in Cameroon, where the term “bilingualism” immediately brings to mind a mastery of English and French. In this wise, handling the topic “bilingualism” becomes a difficult task to the African mind as it has to grapple with the decision whether or not to consider local tongues in the study.
On the other hand, the definition of the term has also been a subject of much debate. The dimension of this debate is clearly shown by two definitions which could best be considered as being polarised: while Bloomfield defines bilingualism as “a native – like control of two languages”, Diebold gives a minimal definition when he uses the term “incipient bilingualism” to mean “the initial stages of contact between two languages”. These two definitions imply that we are forced, in studying bilingualislm, to consider it as something entirely relative because the point at which the leaner of a second language becomes bilingual is either arbitrary or difficult to determine.
It goes without saying, however, that sociolinguists are interested in all languages. In addition, speakers of a particular speech community are always made up of many groups; with the speech of the members of each group reflecting their age, place of origin, professional interests, and educational background, among others. This renders it difficult for one speaker to internalise all the variants; thus the difficulty in determining how perfect language use by a speaker is. It is on the basis of these two considerations that in its attempt to discuss the notion of bilingualism, this paper will include both local and foreign languages; and consider bilingualism as the alternate use of two languages (Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary). Given the complexity of the Cameroonian context, a bilingual in this paper will refer to (1) a speaker of a national language plus an official language, (2) a speaker of two official languages, and (3) a speaker of two national languages.
Furthermore, the paper will, among others, attempt to examine bilingualism mannerisms and attitudes towards it.
2. BILINGUALISLM AS A PROCESS:
To understand the process of bilingualism, it should first be understood that human beings inherit the ability to speak, though they do not inherit the ability to speak a particular language. A child therefore learns to speak the language of those who bring it up from infancy. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica points out that these, in most cases, are its biological parents, especially the mother. But one’s first language is acquired from the environment and learning. Adopted infants, whatever their race and whatever the language of their actual parents, acquire the language of the adoptive parents who raise them just as if they had their own children.
The learning of a second and any subsequently acquired language is quite a different matter. Except in case where the child’s parents / foster parents are bilingual, or from different linguistic backgrounds, learning a second language becomes either a deliberate activity or one imposed on the child by extraneous social, political or religious factors acting on him.
3. DETERMINANTS OF THE NEED FOR BILINGUALISM
At both the individual and societal levels, the need for bilingualism might variously arise from the following reasons:
4. Geographical Proximity:
Geographical proximity of two communities naturally leads to the need for communication among their members for purposes of trade as no community, it is usually said, is an island. Since language might pose as a barrier to effective communication, members of the two communities each learn the other’s language. This inevitably leads to bilingualism. Furthermore, this proximity occasions exogamous marriages leading to the creation of bilingual families.
5. Historical Factors:
Historical events such as conquests and colonialism made the newcomers wield much influence in all spheres of life. Since “the most powerful groups in any society are able to force their language upon the less powerful” (Romaine, 1955:23), all official transactions were done in the foreign language. This is evident in most African countries where colonial masters bequeathed their language as “official” languages in a multilingual sub – Saharan Africa. With her historical contortions, Cameroon ended up with two foreign languages as official languages, which are learnt in schools.
6. Migration:
Either collective or individual migrants fleeing from war or searching individual attainment have settled in foreign linguistic communities. For purposes of communication and job hunting, they have been compelled to learn the languages of host communities, thus becoming bilingual.
7. Religion:
Some religions like Islam consider the language of their sacred scriptures pure and holy. As such, clerics in such religions have to learn the language in which the sacred books were originally written.
8. Public / International Relations:
In multilingual countries like Cameroon and Nigeria, need soon arises for citizens to interact at the national level, implying the inevitability of a lingua franca. Whereas some countries have adopted African languages along European ones for communication purposes, others have maintained those of their colonial masters, which must be taught in schools. Nigeria, for instance, has Yoruba, Hausa and Ibo as well as English to facilitate personal relationship within the country. Similarly, relations between countries have also become indispensable, demanding of politicians, traders and diplomats a mastery of Languages of Wider Communication (LWD). This has necessitated the elaboration of many language teaching programmes within countries. In Cameroon, programmes exist for the teaching of English, French, Italian, Spanish, German and even Chinese.
9. TYPES OF BILINGUALISLM:
Though bilingualism may be classified according to the pairing up of the languages spoken, Weinreich (1963) discussed three types bilingualism in terms of the ways in which it was thought that the concepts of a language were encoded in the individual’s brain (Romaine, 1995). The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, however, identifies two main types, which have adopted here. These are:
a) Coordinate Bilingualism:
In this type, the person learns the languages in separate environments, and words of the two languages are kept separate with each word having its own specific meaning. An instance of this is seen in a Cameroonian child learning English at school. This may also be referred to as subtractive bilingualism.
b) Compound Bilingualism:
Here, the person learns the two languages in the same context where they are used concurrently, so that there is a fused representation of the languages in the brain. This is the case when a child is brought up by bilingual parents, or those from two different linguistic backgrounds. This is additive in nature.
It is worthy of note that the above classification has given rise to several models of bilingual education programmes. Larsen and Long (1994) distinguish two main types:
i. The model devised to help students continue to grow in their first language while acquiring a second language, and
ii. The immersion programme permitting native speakers to receive all of their initial education in a second language. After early grades, more and more content courses are taught in the target language.
10. BILINGUAL BEHAVIOUR
Bilingual people are known to show some of the following dominant traits, which are themselves subject to different interpretations.
a) Interference:
This occurs in a case where a speaker consciously or inadvertently brings in pronunciation, sentence formation and vocabulary of the source language while using a target language. Ruke – Dravina has argued that interference is always present in bilingualism, especially when the two languages are closer in their phonological, syntactic and morphological features. It affects pronunciation as can be seen when Francophone students pronounce the “ch” as “chicken” as “sh”, and might include whole sentences syntactically as in * “John is come here” for “John has come here”. This occurs in the intralingual stage when Francophones misapply rules binding the use of auxiliaries in English.
b) Code-switching:
This occurs when a speaker drops into his target language a word or phrase from his source language. This sometimes makes up for inadequacies, especially stylistic, in the first language. This can be seen when the Franco-English bilingual wishes his guests “ Bon appetit”, an expression considered absurd by users of English.
In Cameroon code-switching may result more often than not from language group influence or occasional lapses which speakers want to fill. It may also be prompted by the bureaucratic influence of the dominant language. Hence, most civil servants prefer “dossiers” to “files”; and gendarmes have a habit of asking for “identities”.
c) Translation:
Since a bilingual person masters two mutually incomprehensible languages, he becomes a translator. The problem with translation is that any translated version must lose something of the author’s original intent. Especially in poetry, the translation is sometimes said to be a better work than the original and, in such cases, one is actually dealing with a new, though derived, work and not just a translation. Hence, the justification of the Italian epigram: “Traduttore traditore” (The translator is a traitor).
11. ATTITUDES TOWARDS BILINGUALISM:
Many writers have examined various attitudes towards bilingualism in multilingual situations. It has been agreed that in the final analysis, some language groups end up viewing bilingualism with suspicion or contempt. These negative attitudes are based on one or more of the following reasons:
(a) Linguistic Basis:
Monolinguals often consider bilinguals as proud. For the most part, language purists view certain bilingual behaviours like code-switching and interference as impure admixtures and detest them because they lead eventually to language shift and eventual death of minority languages, especially as relexification is often a threat to the structural integrity and maintenance of the minority languages. This happens to be true if,, after introducing certain structures into a target language, initiators of these structures maintain them; thus creating pidgins, Creoles, hybrid or mixed languages. According to Romaine (1995), these substratum interferences result from imperfect group learning during language shift. It can be found when a group of speakers shifting to a target language fail or refuse to learn the new language perfectly. From this, one can validly contend that what is commonly referred to as “Francanglais” qualifies for substratum interference which, allowed to grow, threatens the structural integrity of Cameroonian English, considering that most of those perpetuating it cannot express themselves in grammatically acceptable structures.
(b) Political basis:
Conflicts involving language are usually not about languages but about fundamental inequalities between groups which happen to speak different languages. A language can become or be made focus of loyalty for a minority community that thinks itself suppressed, persecuted or subjected to discrimination.That staunch SCNC(Southern Cameroon National Council)* members abhor hearing French spoken in especially Anglophone Cameron well illustrates this fact. To them, Francophone administrators, French signboards, and documents published in French are all tantamount to symbols of colonial masters in conquered territory. This has not stopped Francophones (the majority) from using their numerical strength to devise means of obtaining high posts, businesses and landed property in these parts, thus justifying to a certain extent the apprehensions of the SCNC.
Secondly, a language may become a target for attack or suppression if the authorities associate it with what they consider a rebellious group. The Rwandan genocide of 1994 is just one of the many examples.
(c) Educational basis:
Bilingualism in Education is generally a matter of public policy. Many critics, however, usually hold that children brought up bilingually perform poorly in other subjects, as a greater amount of mental effort has to be expended in the mastery of two languages. While the Cameroon government viewed its introduction of French at the primary School Leaving Certificate Examination as a move towards national integration, Anglophone critics regarded it as a move to assimilate them by confusing their children.
(d) Religion:
Although Islam to a certain extent promotes bilingualism, it also inhibits its practice on the grounds that translation makes a text lose something of the author’s original intent. The Qur’an, for instance, is written in a form of Arabic that Muslims consider pure. Consequently, it is considered blasphemous to use its translated version for prayers and other rituals. This makes many Muslims, especially extremists, regard translators of the Qur’an with disdain.
12. CONCLUSION:
We live in a universe of linguistic diversity accounted for by the biblical tradition of the Tower of Babel. Since the recent attempts at globalisation necessitate high-level human transactions, present strides towards bilingualism are justified. We have examined not only the factors that usher in Bilingualism and those that militate against it,but also their reasons for doing so. Political and religious thinking may make us loathe bilingualism; but that it is a treasure sought by all is relevant. Acquiring “the compound state of mind with two grammars” (Cook: 2003) still remains an ideal attained by relatively few individual (even in a “bilingual” country like Cameroon), but this does not mean that there are few bilinguals, for this paper holds the view that bilingualism is a continuum ranging from mastery of the official languages to the mastery of two national languages.
It will not suffice to end without remarking that African languages validate all criteria for making any vocal system quality for a language. Since no language serves as a measuring rod for another, denouncing bilingualism in them is sheer inferiority complex, for learning them requires the same effort as dues any European language.Jacobson (1953 [Cf: Romaine, 1995]) wrote: “Bilingualism is for me the fundamental problem of linguistics.” It really is, given the linguistic reality that all languages are equal in complexity and in mastery.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Cook, Vivian (2003): Effects of the Second Language on The First. Multilingual Matters Ltd, Clevedon. Pp 168-214
2. Larsen-Freeman, Diane & Long, Michael H. (1994): An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. London. Pp 1-5.
3. Romaine, Suzanne (1995): Bilingualism. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. Pp 1-5, 9-11, 183, 205-291.
4. Spolsky, Bernard (1992): Conditions for Second Language Learning. OUP. Pp 131-146
5. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica
6. Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary. G & C Merriam Company, Springfield.
* An Anglophone movement now striving for the independence of the English-Speaking part of Cameroon.
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Freelance Translator
English to French, French to English
Bamenda-Cameroon
usleinyui@yahoo.com
1. INTRODUCTION:
Bilingualism is a sociolinguistic phenomenon that has received much scholarly attention, not only because of its importance in communications but also because of political and demographic considerations that have led many sociologists to brand some languages as major and others as minor in multiliguistic settings. This classification forces African languages into subordinate positions on the grounds that only a few of them have been codified, and fewer still are used in instruction; hence the superiority of European languages in Cameroon, where the term “bilingualism” immediately brings to mind a mastery of English and French. In this wise, handling the topic “bilingualism” becomes a difficult task to the African mind as it has to grapple with the decision whether or not to consider local tongues in the study.
On the other hand, the definition of the term has also been a subject of much debate. The dimension of this debate is clearly shown by two definitions which could best be considered as being polarised: while Bloomfield defines bilingualism as “a native – like control of two languages”, Diebold gives a minimal definition when he uses the term “incipient bilingualism” to mean “the initial stages of contact between two languages”. These two definitions imply that we are forced, in studying bilingualislm, to consider it as something entirely relative because the point at which the leaner of a second language becomes bilingual is either arbitrary or difficult to determine.
It goes without saying, however, that sociolinguists are interested in all languages. In addition, speakers of a particular speech community are always made up of many groups; with the speech of the members of each group reflecting their age, place of origin, professional interests, and educational background, among others. This renders it difficult for one speaker to internalise all the variants; thus the difficulty in determining how perfect language use by a speaker is. It is on the basis of these two considerations that in its attempt to discuss the notion of bilingualism, this paper will include both local and foreign languages; and consider bilingualism as the alternate use of two languages (Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary). Given the complexity of the Cameroonian context, a bilingual in this paper will refer to (1) a speaker of a national language plus an official language, (2) a speaker of two official languages, and (3) a speaker of two national languages.
Furthermore, the paper will, among others, attempt to examine bilingualism mannerisms and attitudes towards it.
2. BILINGUALISLM AS A PROCESS:
To understand the process of bilingualism, it should first be understood that human beings inherit the ability to speak, though they do not inherit the ability to speak a particular language. A child therefore learns to speak the language of those who bring it up from infancy. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica points out that these, in most cases, are its biological parents, especially the mother. But one’s first language is acquired from the environment and learning. Adopted infants, whatever their race and whatever the language of their actual parents, acquire the language of the adoptive parents who raise them just as if they had their own children.
The learning of a second and any subsequently acquired language is quite a different matter. Except in case where the child’s parents / foster parents are bilingual, or from different linguistic backgrounds, learning a second language becomes either a deliberate activity or one imposed on the child by extraneous social, political or religious factors acting on him.
3. DETERMINANTS OF THE NEED FOR BILINGUALISM
At both the individual and societal levels, the need for bilingualism might variously arise from the following reasons:
4. Geographical Proximity:
Geographical proximity of two communities naturally leads to the need for communication among their members for purposes of trade as no community, it is usually said, is an island. Since language might pose as a barrier to effective communication, members of the two communities each learn the other’s language. This inevitably leads to bilingualism. Furthermore, this proximity occasions exogamous marriages leading to the creation of bilingual families.
5. Historical Factors:
Historical events such as conquests and colonialism made the newcomers wield much influence in all spheres of life. Since “the most powerful groups in any society are able to force their language upon the less powerful” (Romaine, 1955:23), all official transactions were done in the foreign language. This is evident in most African countries where colonial masters bequeathed their language as “official” languages in a multilingual sub – Saharan Africa. With her historical contortions, Cameroon ended up with two foreign languages as official languages, which are learnt in schools.
6. Migration:
Either collective or individual migrants fleeing from war or searching individual attainment have settled in foreign linguistic communities. For purposes of communication and job hunting, they have been compelled to learn the languages of host communities, thus becoming bilingual.
7. Religion:
Some religions like Islam consider the language of their sacred scriptures pure and holy. As such, clerics in such religions have to learn the language in which the sacred books were originally written.
8. Public / International Relations:
In multilingual countries like Cameroon and Nigeria, need soon arises for citizens to interact at the national level, implying the inevitability of a lingua franca. Whereas some countries have adopted African languages along European ones for communication purposes, others have maintained those of their colonial masters, which must be taught in schools. Nigeria, for instance, has Yoruba, Hausa and Ibo as well as English to facilitate personal relationship within the country. Similarly, relations between countries have also become indispensable, demanding of politicians, traders and diplomats a mastery of Languages of Wider Communication (LWD). This has necessitated the elaboration of many language teaching programmes within countries. In Cameroon, programmes exist for the teaching of English, French, Italian, Spanish, German and even Chinese.
9. TYPES OF BILINGUALISLM:
Though bilingualism may be classified according to the pairing up of the languages spoken, Weinreich (1963) discussed three types bilingualism in terms of the ways in which it was thought that the concepts of a language were encoded in the individual’s brain (Romaine, 1995). The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, however, identifies two main types, which have adopted here. These are:
a) Coordinate Bilingualism:
In this type, the person learns the languages in separate environments, and words of the two languages are kept separate with each word having its own specific meaning. An instance of this is seen in a Cameroonian child learning English at school. This may also be referred to as subtractive bilingualism.
b) Compound Bilingualism:
Here, the person learns the two languages in the same context where they are used concurrently, so that there is a fused representation of the languages in the brain. This is the case when a child is brought up by bilingual parents, or those from two different linguistic backgrounds. This is additive in nature.
It is worthy of note that the above classification has given rise to several models of bilingual education programmes. Larsen and Long (1994) distinguish two main types:
i. The model devised to help students continue to grow in their first language while acquiring a second language, and
ii. The immersion programme permitting native speakers to receive all of their initial education in a second language. After early grades, more and more content courses are taught in the target language.
10. BILINGUAL BEHAVIOUR
Bilingual people are known to show some of the following dominant traits, which are themselves subject to different interpretations.
a) Interference:
This occurs in a case where a speaker consciously or inadvertently brings in pronunciation, sentence formation and vocabulary of the source language while using a target language. Ruke – Dravina has argued that interference is always present in bilingualism, especially when the two languages are closer in their phonological, syntactic and morphological features. It affects pronunciation as can be seen when Francophone students pronounce the “ch” as “chicken” as “sh”, and might include whole sentences syntactically as in * “John is come here” for “John has come here”. This occurs in the intralingual stage when Francophones misapply rules binding the use of auxiliaries in English.
b) Code-switching:
This occurs when a speaker drops into his target language a word or phrase from his source language. This sometimes makes up for inadequacies, especially stylistic, in the first language. This can be seen when the Franco-English bilingual wishes his guests “ Bon appetit”, an expression considered absurd by users of English.
In Cameroon code-switching may result more often than not from language group influence or occasional lapses which speakers want to fill. It may also be prompted by the bureaucratic influence of the dominant language. Hence, most civil servants prefer “dossiers” to “files”; and gendarmes have a habit of asking for “identities”.
c) Translation:
Since a bilingual person masters two mutually incomprehensible languages, he becomes a translator. The problem with translation is that any translated version must lose something of the author’s original intent. Especially in poetry, the translation is sometimes said to be a better work than the original and, in such cases, one is actually dealing with a new, though derived, work and not just a translation. Hence, the justification of the Italian epigram: “Traduttore traditore” (The translator is a traitor).
11. ATTITUDES TOWARDS BILINGUALISM:
Many writers have examined various attitudes towards bilingualism in multilingual situations. It has been agreed that in the final analysis, some language groups end up viewing bilingualism with suspicion or contempt. These negative attitudes are based on one or more of the following reasons:
(a) Linguistic Basis:
Monolinguals often consider bilinguals as proud. For the most part, language purists view certain bilingual behaviours like code-switching and interference as impure admixtures and detest them because they lead eventually to language shift and eventual death of minority languages, especially as relexification is often a threat to the structural integrity and maintenance of the minority languages. This happens to be true if,, after introducing certain structures into a target language, initiators of these structures maintain them; thus creating pidgins, Creoles, hybrid or mixed languages. According to Romaine (1995), these substratum interferences result from imperfect group learning during language shift. It can be found when a group of speakers shifting to a target language fail or refuse to learn the new language perfectly. From this, one can validly contend that what is commonly referred to as “Francanglais” qualifies for substratum interference which, allowed to grow, threatens the structural integrity of Cameroonian English, considering that most of those perpetuating it cannot express themselves in grammatically acceptable structures.
(b) Political basis:
Conflicts involving language are usually not about languages but about fundamental inequalities between groups which happen to speak different languages. A language can become or be made focus of loyalty for a minority community that thinks itself suppressed, persecuted or subjected to discrimination.That staunch SCNC(Southern Cameroon National Council)* members abhor hearing French spoken in especially Anglophone Cameron well illustrates this fact. To them, Francophone administrators, French signboards, and documents published in French are all tantamount to symbols of colonial masters in conquered territory. This has not stopped Francophones (the majority) from using their numerical strength to devise means of obtaining high posts, businesses and landed property in these parts, thus justifying to a certain extent the apprehensions of the SCNC.
Secondly, a language may become a target for attack or suppression if the authorities associate it with what they consider a rebellious group. The Rwandan genocide of 1994 is just one of the many examples.
(c) Educational basis:
Bilingualism in Education is generally a matter of public policy. Many critics, however, usually hold that children brought up bilingually perform poorly in other subjects, as a greater amount of mental effort has to be expended in the mastery of two languages. While the Cameroon government viewed its introduction of French at the primary School Leaving Certificate Examination as a move towards national integration, Anglophone critics regarded it as a move to assimilate them by confusing their children.
(d) Religion:
Although Islam to a certain extent promotes bilingualism, it also inhibits its practice on the grounds that translation makes a text lose something of the author’s original intent. The Qur’an, for instance, is written in a form of Arabic that Muslims consider pure. Consequently, it is considered blasphemous to use its translated version for prayers and other rituals. This makes many Muslims, especially extremists, regard translators of the Qur’an with disdain.
12. CONCLUSION:
We live in a universe of linguistic diversity accounted for by the biblical tradition of the Tower of Babel. Since the recent attempts at globalisation necessitate high-level human transactions, present strides towards bilingualism are justified. We have examined not only the factors that usher in Bilingualism and those that militate against it,but also their reasons for doing so. Political and religious thinking may make us loathe bilingualism; but that it is a treasure sought by all is relevant. Acquiring “the compound state of mind with two grammars” (Cook: 2003) still remains an ideal attained by relatively few individual (even in a “bilingual” country like Cameroon), but this does not mean that there are few bilinguals, for this paper holds the view that bilingualism is a continuum ranging from mastery of the official languages to the mastery of two national languages.
It will not suffice to end without remarking that African languages validate all criteria for making any vocal system quality for a language. Since no language serves as a measuring rod for another, denouncing bilingualism in them is sheer inferiority complex, for learning them requires the same effort as dues any European language.Jacobson (1953 [Cf: Romaine, 1995]) wrote: “Bilingualism is for me the fundamental problem of linguistics.” It really is, given the linguistic reality that all languages are equal in complexity and in mastery.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Cook, Vivian (2003): Effects of the Second Language on The First. Multilingual Matters Ltd, Clevedon. Pp 168-214
2. Larsen-Freeman, Diane & Long, Michael H. (1994): An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. London. Pp 1-5.
3. Romaine, Suzanne (1995): Bilingualism. Blackwell Publishers, Oxford. Pp 1-5, 9-11, 183, 205-291.
4. Spolsky, Bernard (1992): Conditions for Second Language Learning. OUP. Pp 131-146
5. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica
6. Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary. G & C Merriam Company, Springfield.
* An Anglophone movement now striving for the independence of the English-Speaking part of Cameroon.
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Sunday, March 29, 2009
Immerse Yourself In The Japanese Language
By John Davison,
Director of numerous Internet Companies,
Published Author
mark[at]6nbls25.com
Japanese is a language spoken by more than 120 million people worldwide in countries including Japan, Brazil, Guam, Taiwan, and on the American island of Hawaii. Japanese is a language comprised of characters completely different from the western alphabet that makes up such languages as English, French, Italian, and German. If you are required to learn Japanese for business reasons, or if you are planning a vacation to the Asian island, it might seem intimidating to learn a language so different for your own.
If you are required to learn the Japanese language for your job, consider jumping into an immersion program. There are immersion programs that are available for enrollment that do not require you to travel to Japan, but are held in the United States. Master instructors who are native Japanese speakers will provide a short and highly intensive program in which you will live and breathe Japanese. Do not be intimidated. Immersion programs are known to be highly effective in very short periods of time. You might surprise yourself with how much you learn in such a short period of time. Not only will you come away with a firm grasp of conversational Japanese, but you will also understand the alphabet, and gain a little insight into Japanese culture. At the end of your course, you might be tested on your newly acquired knowledge. The Japanese government provides standardized tests that measure written and conversational understanding, the most common known as the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT). There is also a test available that measures comprehension of the language in business situations. It is known as the Business Japanese Proficiency Test (BJPT).
Learning the Japanese language will certainly help to enhance your career. If your organization has offices in Japan, or you do business with other Japanese firms, you will not only will be able to communicate with your Japanese business associates, but you will also be able to better represent your organization in your business travels there.
If you want to learn Japanese in order to vacation on the island, and if you have the time and the financial resources, you might opt to learn the Japanese language through an immersion program where you travel to Japan. This way, you will not only learn the Japanese language, but you will also experience the fascinating Japanese culture. Learning Japanese where the language has its origins, you will plunge yourself into the life and culture, and you will learn the language quickly. You will learn the conversational and colloquial styles of the language. You will interact on a daily basis with indigenous Japanese people, who probably won’t be willing or able to communicate with you in English. You will be immersed into the everyday life of the island nation. You will grow to understand and appreciate the Japanese culture, including the history, the art, the architecture, the food, and the people. You will attend courses in which you will learn the alphabet, how to write it and read it. Learning the Japanese language through immersion is a fun and ideal way to go.
Whether you want to learn the Japanese language for pleasure, or you are inclined to do so for work, learning to speak, read, and write Japanese gives you the potential to further develop you career by working abroad and make a good impression with overseas associates. Learning Japanese will also enhance your travels in that you will be able to appreciate the lives and culture of the Japanese people. Learning the Japanese language is an intellectually and personally enriching pursuit that will provide you with career opportunities as well as an awareness of a culture other than your own.
Find the essential information on where and how to learn a new or second language at http://www.foreign-languages-school.com/the-japanese-language.html
About the Author: John is a director of numerous Internet companies and is a published author. Many articles have been produced on a variety of subjects with excellent content and depth. All his articles may be reproduced provided that an active link is included to http://www.foreign-languages-school.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Director of numerous Internet Companies,
Published Author
mark[at]6nbls25.com
Japanese is a language spoken by more than 120 million people worldwide in countries including Japan, Brazil, Guam, Taiwan, and on the American island of Hawaii. Japanese is a language comprised of characters completely different from the western alphabet that makes up such languages as English, French, Italian, and German. If you are required to learn Japanese for business reasons, or if you are planning a vacation to the Asian island, it might seem intimidating to learn a language so different for your own.
If you are required to learn the Japanese language for your job, consider jumping into an immersion program. There are immersion programs that are available for enrollment that do not require you to travel to Japan, but are held in the United States. Master instructors who are native Japanese speakers will provide a short and highly intensive program in which you will live and breathe Japanese. Do not be intimidated. Immersion programs are known to be highly effective in very short periods of time. You might surprise yourself with how much you learn in such a short period of time. Not only will you come away with a firm grasp of conversational Japanese, but you will also understand the alphabet, and gain a little insight into Japanese culture. At the end of your course, you might be tested on your newly acquired knowledge. The Japanese government provides standardized tests that measure written and conversational understanding, the most common known as the Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT). There is also a test available that measures comprehension of the language in business situations. It is known as the Business Japanese Proficiency Test (BJPT).
Learning the Japanese language will certainly help to enhance your career. If your organization has offices in Japan, or you do business with other Japanese firms, you will not only will be able to communicate with your Japanese business associates, but you will also be able to better represent your organization in your business travels there.
If you want to learn Japanese in order to vacation on the island, and if you have the time and the financial resources, you might opt to learn the Japanese language through an immersion program where you travel to Japan. This way, you will not only learn the Japanese language, but you will also experience the fascinating Japanese culture. Learning Japanese where the language has its origins, you will plunge yourself into the life and culture, and you will learn the language quickly. You will learn the conversational and colloquial styles of the language. You will interact on a daily basis with indigenous Japanese people, who probably won’t be willing or able to communicate with you in English. You will be immersed into the everyday life of the island nation. You will grow to understand and appreciate the Japanese culture, including the history, the art, the architecture, the food, and the people. You will attend courses in which you will learn the alphabet, how to write it and read it. Learning the Japanese language through immersion is a fun and ideal way to go.
Whether you want to learn the Japanese language for pleasure, or you are inclined to do so for work, learning to speak, read, and write Japanese gives you the potential to further develop you career by working abroad and make a good impression with overseas associates. Learning Japanese will also enhance your travels in that you will be able to appreciate the lives and culture of the Japanese people. Learning the Japanese language is an intellectually and personally enriching pursuit that will provide you with career opportunities as well as an awareness of a culture other than your own.
Find the essential information on where and how to learn a new or second language at http://www.foreign-languages-school.com/the-japanese-language.html
About the Author: John is a director of numerous Internet companies and is a published author. Many articles have been produced on a variety of subjects with excellent content and depth. All his articles may be reproduced provided that an active link is included to http://www.foreign-languages-school.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Saturday, March 28, 2009
How To Find The Meaning Of Words As You Read
By Frank Gerace, Ph.D,
New York, U.S.A.
fg[at]leerespoder.com
http://www.GoodAccent.com
Vocabulary Building and Reading Comprehension
The meaning of unknown words which you come across in your reading sometimes can be known by their surroundings, that is, their contexts. The context of the sentence can tell us the part of speech of the unknown word. Using the context of the paragraph to define unknown words can also helpful.
Although it takes practice, it is the easiest and most efficient way to identify words. Often, using the context is the only way to figure out the meaning of the word as it is used in the sentence, passage, or chapter.
Consider the word "bar". Bar is a common word. But without surrounding words, you don't know if it describes soap, a place that serves beer, a sand formation at the beach, a way to lock the door, or...
Readers often have trouble because they identify the literal but incorrect meaning of a word when they should identify the way it was used in the passage. The following sections will give you more explanation and some exercises on how to get help on the meaning of unknown words by checking their part of speech and their place in context.
A. Using The Part of Speech of the unknown word as a help in reading.
One consideration in using the context is to determine the unknown word's part of speech. The words around the unknown word give you clues. Once you know if the word is a noun or if it is an adjective, it often is enough for you to continue reading intelligently without having to stop to look up the meaning of the word. After coming across the word a few more times, you will know its meaning more firmly than if you had just looked it up.
In the following sentences, identify the part of speech of the italicized words by writing N if the word is a noun, V if the italicized word is a verb, Adj if the italicized word is an adjective, or Adv if the italicized word is an adverb.
Example: She liked to wear red and always wore jewelry made of carnelian. Ans. N
Knowing the part of speech of the unknown word is not the only way to figure out its meaning. There are other clues to the meanings of unknown words. They are found directly within a sentence, paragraph, passage, or chapter. Being able to recognize these clues helps you define new words in context. These clues are found right in the text and can be words or punctuation marks or specific words or phrases.
You use them to compare words or to identify unknown words that mean the same or the opposite of words you already know. The clues can also be used to define unknown words that are examples of a group.
There are five other clues that will help you: 1. Punctuation clues, 2. Definition clues, 3. Contrast clues, 4.Comparison clues, and 5. Example clues.
Of these types, the most important are the Contrast clues and the Comparison Clues. The other clues are very obvious and are given here just for the sake of completeness. The reader should concentrate on the Contrast and the Comparison clues.
The five text based clues are useful but the most powerful tool is the Framework based clue. This is the use of information from your own experience, common sense, and the context in which you find the difficult word. There will be examples of this tool at the end of the paper.
1. Punctuation Clues
Punctuation clues are given when the unknown word is set off by commas, parentheses, brackets, or dashes. The information contained within the punctuation marks sometimes means the same or nearly the same as the unknown words. Or, the unknown word might be set off from its meaning by punctuation marks. Information set off by punctuation marks may clarify rather than define the word. Finding these clues is not foolproof.
Example of Punctuation Clue: Nicotine, a colorless and oily drug in tobacco, stains the teeth of chain smokers. Explanation: The words between the commas-a colorless and oily drug in tobacco-define nicotine .
Punctuation Exercise: Underline the punctuation clue that tells you the meaning of the italicized word.
Definition clues join the unknown word with the word(s) that rename it or tell its meaning. The clues precede or follow words that are or act like linking verbs. A linking verb shows no action but indicates being.
Examples of these verbs are: is, was, are, means, i.e. (that is), involves, is called, that is, or resembles.
For example: The mansion's piazza resembled a large uncovered patio. Explanation: The word resembled joins piazza with its meaning so it is a clue that lets us know that a piazza is a large uncovered patio.
Definition Exercise: Use definition text-based clues to find the meaning of the italicized word. Underline the word (or words) that tells you the meaning of the italicized word.
With contrast clues, you use the opposite of known information to determine the unknown word. Connecting words like however, yet, on the other hand, instead of, but, while, and although join the unknown word with another word that is its opposite.
Example of Contrast Clue:
My sister is extremely neat in appearance while she is slovenly in her housekeeping.
Explanation: The word "while" indicates that slovenly means the opposite of neat. Thus, slovenly means sloppy or messy.
Contrast Exercise: Determine the meaning of the italicized word by using contrast text-based clues. Exercise Example: Although the patron asked for a solemn poem, the poet wrote doggerel.
Comparison clues indicate that two or more things are alike. A comparison is possible because the known and unknown words have similarities. Words like similarly, as well as, both, and likewise show you that comparisons can be made.
Examples of Comparison Clue:
Miss Johnson is a prim, modest woman; likewise, many of her friends are very proper.
Explanation: Likewise is used to compare prim to proper. Proper means respectable. Thus, prim has a similar meaning.
Example clues tell you an example of an unknown word follows. You derive the meaning of the unknown word by determining what the examples have in common. Example clues are usually introduced by the following words and phrases: such as, such, other, for example, and like.
Example of "Example" Clue: Potentates-such as kings, queens, and emperors-are very powerful and wealthy people. Explanation: Since kings, queens, and emperors are the rulers of countries, potentates are rulers.
"Example" Clue EXERCISE: Underline the words that explain the italicized words.
Canines, such as collies, pugs, and poodles, are good pets.
Edifices, such as skyscrapers and condominiums, are found in cities.
Various means of conveyance-for example, cars, subways, and ships are used worldwide.
Nickels, dimes, dollars, and other kinds of legal tender are used to purchase goods.
Many people enjoy eating mollusks, like clams and snails.
Fiduciaries, like lawyers and bankers, were chosen to manage the young heir's money.
Framework Based Clues
To find meanings from text-based clues (like contrast clues, comparison clues, definition clues, example clues), you looked for clues in the sentence itself. A second kind of clue does not rely on specific words or punctuation marks to indicate meaning. This kind of context clue is called framework-based
Your knowledge of the meanings of surrounding words helps you discover the meaning of a word or of a sentence. The background information you find in these frameworks helps you get the meanings of new words. Common sense and your knowledge of the parts of speech also help in defining unknown words. You combine your experience with what the text contains to determine meaning.
Framework Based Clue Example: The angry driver shouted vehemently during his fight with the other driver. What does vehemently mean? You know what angry means, and you know how people feel when they argue. From this, you can figure out that vehemently has something to do with strong emotion or intense feeling. This is an example of using framework-based context to find the meanings of new words. The meaning you find comes from your personal experience.
Sometimes it takes a bit more detective work to puzzle out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. In such cases, you must draw conclusions based on the information given with the word. Asking yourself questions about the passages may help you make a fairly accurate guess about the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Each of the sentences below is followed by a question. Think about each question; using your common sense and asking yourself a question about the sentence you should be able to know the correct meaning of the italicized word.
The first sentence provides enough evidence for you to guess that irate means very angry. Sycophant in the second sentence means sweet-talker. And a fiasco is a complete disaster. (These are not exact dictionary definitions of the words. But by using context clues, but you will often be accurate enough to make good sense of what you are reading. And the good thing is that you save time in your reading because you don’t have to look up every word!)
Try to answer the question that follows each item of the list on the other side of this page. Then use the logic of each answer to help you circle the letter of the meaning you think is correct. Note that some of these sentences have been taken from college textbooks. This should prove to you that your new skills in reading will help you in your college studies. In the future you will be able to make up your own questions to help you.
1. Jamal didn't want to tell Tina the entire plot of the movie, so he just gave her the gist of the story. (What would Jamal say to Tina?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
2. The lizard was so lethargic that I wasn't sure if it was alive or dead. It didn't even blink. (How active is this lizard?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
3. After the accident, I was angered when the other driver told the police officer a complete fabrication about what happened. He made it seem that I was the only person at fault. (How truthful was the other driver's information?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
4. The public knows very little about the covert activities of CIA spies. (What kind of activities would the CIA spies be involved in that the public wouldn't know much about?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
5. Whether or not there is life in outer space is an enigma. We may never know for sure until we are capable of space travel or aliens actually land on our planet. (What would we call something to which we have no answer?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
6. Suicide rates tend to fluctuate with the seasons, with much higher rates in the winter than in the summer. (What happens to the suicide rate from season to season?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
7. Human beings are resilient creatures-they can often bounce back from negative experiences and adjust well to life. (What point is the author making about the nature of human beings ?
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
8. A major accomplishment of the field of sociology is dispelling the myths and prejudices that groups of people have about each other. (What would teachers of sociology do to "myths and prejudices" that could be considered a "major accomplishment"?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
9. When he first heard the news that he had lost the job, Peter showed a pugnacious attitude. But later when other alternatives were explained to him, he became less hostile. (What attitude would you feel when you lose your job?
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
About the Author: Frank Gerace Ph.D has worked in Latin America on UN and national Educational and Communication Projects, and has taught in Bolivian and Peruvian Universities. He currently teaches English in New York City at La Guardia College/CUNY. He provides resources on accent reduction and the proper American English accent at http://www.GoodAccent.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
New York, U.S.A.
fg[at]leerespoder.com
http://www.GoodAccent.com
Vocabulary Building and Reading Comprehension
The meaning of unknown words which you come across in your reading sometimes can be known by their surroundings, that is, their contexts. The context of the sentence can tell us the part of speech of the unknown word. Using the context of the paragraph to define unknown words can also helpful.
Although it takes practice, it is the easiest and most efficient way to identify words. Often, using the context is the only way to figure out the meaning of the word as it is used in the sentence, passage, or chapter.
Consider the word "bar". Bar is a common word. But without surrounding words, you don't know if it describes soap, a place that serves beer, a sand formation at the beach, a way to lock the door, or...
Readers often have trouble because they identify the literal but incorrect meaning of a word when they should identify the way it was used in the passage. The following sections will give you more explanation and some exercises on how to get help on the meaning of unknown words by checking their part of speech and their place in context.
A. Using The Part of Speech of the unknown word as a help in reading.
One consideration in using the context is to determine the unknown word's part of speech. The words around the unknown word give you clues. Once you know if the word is a noun or if it is an adjective, it often is enough for you to continue reading intelligently without having to stop to look up the meaning of the word. After coming across the word a few more times, you will know its meaning more firmly than if you had just looked it up.
In the following sentences, identify the part of speech of the italicized words by writing N if the word is a noun, V if the italicized word is a verb, Adj if the italicized word is an adjective, or Adv if the italicized word is an adverb.
Example: She liked to wear red and always wore jewelry made of carnelian. Ans. N
- The dirty old man gave the young woman a salacious look.
- The president prayed for the sagacity to make the right decision in the face of many alternatives.
- The man looked at the rusty old gadget and wondered how its mechanism worked.
- The dying man designated his son to receive his property.
- The brindled dog barked loudly.
- The father caressed his crying child with great tenderness.
- "Don’t patronize us; we are not children!" said the angry indigenous leaders to the politicians.
- 8. John was a good emanuensis, always taking dictation correctly and typing up all of his employer’s correspondence.
- The boy was disappointed by the paltry amount he received as an inheritance when his grandfather died.
- The young boy ran clumsily down the hill with his arms and legs flapping all over.
Knowing the part of speech of the unknown word is not the only way to figure out its meaning. There are other clues to the meanings of unknown words. They are found directly within a sentence, paragraph, passage, or chapter. Being able to recognize these clues helps you define new words in context. These clues are found right in the text and can be words or punctuation marks or specific words or phrases.
You use them to compare words or to identify unknown words that mean the same or the opposite of words you already know. The clues can also be used to define unknown words that are examples of a group.
There are five other clues that will help you: 1. Punctuation clues, 2. Definition clues, 3. Contrast clues, 4.Comparison clues, and 5. Example clues.
Of these types, the most important are the Contrast clues and the Comparison Clues. The other clues are very obvious and are given here just for the sake of completeness. The reader should concentrate on the Contrast and the Comparison clues.
The five text based clues are useful but the most powerful tool is the Framework based clue. This is the use of information from your own experience, common sense, and the context in which you find the difficult word. There will be examples of this tool at the end of the paper.
1. Punctuation Clues
Punctuation clues are given when the unknown word is set off by commas, parentheses, brackets, or dashes. The information contained within the punctuation marks sometimes means the same or nearly the same as the unknown words. Or, the unknown word might be set off from its meaning by punctuation marks. Information set off by punctuation marks may clarify rather than define the word. Finding these clues is not foolproof.
Example of Punctuation Clue: Nicotine, a colorless and oily drug in tobacco, stains the teeth of chain smokers. Explanation: The words between the commas-a colorless and oily drug in tobacco-define nicotine .
Punctuation Exercise: Underline the punctuation clue that tells you the meaning of the italicized word.
- The soldiers advanced down the small deep-sided gulch (a narrow valley) into an ambush.
- The philosopher Descartes helped to establish dualism (the separation of mind and body).
- Metamemory -knowledge about one's memory processes-is helpful in helping us store and recall information.
- Adjunct aids-techniques used to assist students' comprehension of reading materials-have been found to be quite useful.
- The deluge, a flood of rain, threatened to drown the little town.
Definition clues join the unknown word with the word(s) that rename it or tell its meaning. The clues precede or follow words that are or act like linking verbs. A linking verb shows no action but indicates being.
Examples of these verbs are: is, was, are, means, i.e. (that is), involves, is called, that is, or resembles.
For example: The mansion's piazza resembled a large uncovered patio. Explanation: The word resembled joins piazza with its meaning so it is a clue that lets us know that a piazza is a large uncovered patio.
Definition Exercise: Use definition text-based clues to find the meaning of the italicized word. Underline the word (or words) that tells you the meaning of the italicized word.
- The art, science, or profession of teaching is called pedagogy.
- Divergent thinking is generating many different ideas in order to solve a problem.
- Conservative behavior involves cautious or conventional actions.
- The seasonal wind of the Indian Ocean and southern Asia is a monsoon.
- Criterion means a standard or rule by which a judgment is formed.
- A souk is an open-air marketplace in North Africa.
With contrast clues, you use the opposite of known information to determine the unknown word. Connecting words like however, yet, on the other hand, instead of, but, while, and although join the unknown word with another word that is its opposite.
Example of Contrast Clue:
My sister is extremely neat in appearance while she is slovenly in her housekeeping.
Explanation: The word "while" indicates that slovenly means the opposite of neat. Thus, slovenly means sloppy or messy.
Contrast Exercise: Determine the meaning of the italicized word by using contrast text-based clues. Exercise Example: Although the patron asked for a solemn poem, the poet wrote doggerel.
- The tumor was benign; nevertheless, the doctor decided to treat it as if it could injure the patient.
- Some business disputes can be settled out of court; on the other hand; others require litigation.
- At first the labor union leaders and the factory owners argued about pay schedules and benefits; however, they finally came to a compromise.
- Gina's leg muscles continued to atrophy because of her injury, but she exercised to build up their strength.
- Carlos acquiesced to Jane's demands instead of standing his ground and defending his viewpoint.
Comparison clues indicate that two or more things are alike. A comparison is possible because the known and unknown words have similarities. Words like similarly, as well as, both, and likewise show you that comparisons can be made.
Examples of Comparison Clue:
Miss Johnson is a prim, modest woman; likewise, many of her friends are very proper.
Explanation: Likewise is used to compare prim to proper. Proper means respectable. Thus, prim has a similar meaning.
- The Greek vase was made of alabaster; similarly, the Roman lamp was also of a translucent, white stone.
- Taking out the garbage was an onerous task; likewise, washing dishes can be a hard job.
- Repartee, as well as other kinds of humorous conversation, kept the talk show from becoming boring.
- Birds are oviparous; similarly, fish and reptiles lay eggs that hatch outside of the body.
- Both accountants and CPA’s are necessary for a large company’s financial office.
- The old chair was protected by both handmade antimacassars and other coverings.
Example clues tell you an example of an unknown word follows. You derive the meaning of the unknown word by determining what the examples have in common. Example clues are usually introduced by the following words and phrases: such as, such, other, for example, and like.
Example of "Example" Clue: Potentates-such as kings, queens, and emperors-are very powerful and wealthy people. Explanation: Since kings, queens, and emperors are the rulers of countries, potentates are rulers.
"Example" Clue EXERCISE: Underline the words that explain the italicized words.
Canines, such as collies, pugs, and poodles, are good pets.
Edifices, such as skyscrapers and condominiums, are found in cities.
Various means of conveyance-for example, cars, subways, and ships are used worldwide.
Nickels, dimes, dollars, and other kinds of legal tender are used to purchase goods.
Many people enjoy eating mollusks, like clams and snails.
Fiduciaries, like lawyers and bankers, were chosen to manage the young heir's money.
Framework Based Clues
To find meanings from text-based clues (like contrast clues, comparison clues, definition clues, example clues), you looked for clues in the sentence itself. A second kind of clue does not rely on specific words or punctuation marks to indicate meaning. This kind of context clue is called framework-based
Your knowledge of the meanings of surrounding words helps you discover the meaning of a word or of a sentence. The background information you find in these frameworks helps you get the meanings of new words. Common sense and your knowledge of the parts of speech also help in defining unknown words. You combine your experience with what the text contains to determine meaning.
Framework Based Clue Example: The angry driver shouted vehemently during his fight with the other driver. What does vehemently mean? You know what angry means, and you know how people feel when they argue. From this, you can figure out that vehemently has something to do with strong emotion or intense feeling. This is an example of using framework-based context to find the meanings of new words. The meaning you find comes from your personal experience.
Sometimes it takes a bit more detective work to puzzle out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. In such cases, you must draw conclusions based on the information given with the word. Asking yourself questions about the passages may help you make a fairly accurate guess about the meaning of the unfamiliar word. Each of the sentences below is followed by a question. Think about each question; using your common sense and asking yourself a question about the sentence you should be able to know the correct meaning of the italicized word.
- A former employee, irate over having been fired, broke into the plant and deliberately wrecked several machines. (What would be the employee's state of mind?)
- John always praised his bosses; he always agreed with what they said. He said he was just a good employee but his friends said he was a sycophant. (What behaviors were his friends describing with the word they put on John?)
- The car wash we organized to raise funds was a fiasco -it rained all day.
The first sentence provides enough evidence for you to guess that irate means very angry. Sycophant in the second sentence means sweet-talker. And a fiasco is a complete disaster. (These are not exact dictionary definitions of the words. But by using context clues, but you will often be accurate enough to make good sense of what you are reading. And the good thing is that you save time in your reading because you don’t have to look up every word!)
Try to answer the question that follows each item of the list on the other side of this page. Then use the logic of each answer to help you circle the letter of the meaning you think is correct. Note that some of these sentences have been taken from college textbooks. This should prove to you that your new skills in reading will help you in your college studies. In the future you will be able to make up your own questions to help you.
1. Jamal didn't want to tell Tina the entire plot of the movie, so he just gave her the gist of the story. (What would Jamal say to Tina?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
2. The lizard was so lethargic that I wasn't sure if it was alive or dead. It didn't even blink. (How active is this lizard?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
3. After the accident, I was angered when the other driver told the police officer a complete fabrication about what happened. He made it seem that I was the only person at fault. (How truthful was the other driver's information?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
4. The public knows very little about the covert activities of CIA spies. (What kind of activities would the CIA spies be involved in that the public wouldn't know much about?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
5. Whether or not there is life in outer space is an enigma. We may never know for sure until we are capable of space travel or aliens actually land on our planet. (What would we call something to which we have no answer?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
6. Suicide rates tend to fluctuate with the seasons, with much higher rates in the winter than in the summer. (What happens to the suicide rate from season to season?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
7. Human beings are resilient creatures-they can often bounce back from negative experiences and adjust well to life. (What point is the author making about the nature of human beings ?
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
8. A major accomplishment of the field of sociology is dispelling the myths and prejudices that groups of people have about each other. (What would teachers of sociology do to "myths and prejudices" that could be considered a "major accomplishment"?)
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
9. When he first heard the news that he had lost the job, Peter showed a pugnacious attitude. But later when other alternatives were explained to him, he became less hostile. (What attitude would you feel when you lose your job?
Answer the question: …………………………………………………………………
Meaning of the word: …………………………………………………………………
About the Author: Frank Gerace Ph.D has worked in Latin America on UN and national Educational and Communication Projects, and has taught in Bolivian and Peruvian Universities. He currently teaches English in New York City at La Guardia College/CUNY. He provides resources on accent reduction and the proper American English accent at http://www.GoodAccent.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Wednesday, March 25, 2009
Language Learning in Translation Classrooms
"Learning is a social process that occurs through interpersonal interaction within a cooperative context. Individuals, working together, construct shared understandings and knowledge."
David Johnson, Robert Johnson, and Karl Smith. Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom.
Edina, Mn: Interaction Book Co., 1991.
I haven't heard it recently, but there was a time when it was common to hear people say, "those who can, do; those who can't, teach." Perhaps this saying has lost its appeal because first of all more and more educators have realized the advantages students reap when professionals add their competence to the academic framework. Second, there are many people both working in their fields and teaching in a university setting. Prominent translation trainers such as Gouadec, Kiraly and Pym have emphasized the advantages of work-simulated translation classes; professionals are the logical instructors in such programs (Gouadec: 1999; Kiraly: 1995; Pym: 2002).
Although practicing translators and interpreters are not in the classroom to learn, one of the major benefits to teaching is definitely how much teachers do learn about the complexity of the learning process by supporting student efforts to become competent professionals. One of the common errors that new instructors at university make however is to assume that their students are already expert learners. Because university students are adults, many instructors presume that their own role consists of presenting material once, applying it briefly and then moving on to a new concept. They often assume students are able to apply newly acquired concepts in foreign situations after having been exposed only briefly. However, this may not be the case. In reality, each classroom is made up of a set of individuals with their own backgrounds, learning styles and academic levels. Translation professionals preparing to share their techniques and experience with students will find it helpful to review the basic ways it is believed that students learn. This article explores learning approaches applicable to translation instructors whose goal it is to improve their students' language learning competence. Bob Hodge in Teaching as Communication (1993) stated that "language, above all, holds a community together" (p. 2). Even though children learn a language implicitly, people who use languages as the tools of their professions, such as translators and interpreters, must learn languages much more deeply than others. Although the discussion of how people learn is still a very controversial subject, those approaches that follow may be particularly applicable to adult learners.
One of the roles of a psychologist is to investigate the way people learn. One of the most influential explanations has been the behaviorist approach. An instructor who uses this approach would break up knowledge into small, logically organized pieces of information and provide positive reinforcement so that students learn to use that information. Behaviorists emphasize repetition of material so that it becomes a natural reaction for the student. Behaviorism has fallen from favor somewhat recently with the broadly held belief today that learning is a complex activity involving more than just repetition. However, language students and students who use language do benefit from a certain amount of well thought-out repetition and the use of models as a basis for their writing.
A more recent explanation of how to encourage learning, the cognitive approach, is quite appropriate to university teaching as it recognizes that learning is not only the recall of facts but also involves memory, reasoning, critical thinking and problem solving, all of which are applicable to the daily activities of a translator or interpreter. According to Svinicki in Memory Enhancement (1997), six principles of cognitive learning can be directly applied to learning.
University instructors may incorporate appreciation of these eight types of intelligence to involve more students in learning efficiently. For example, if many students in the classroom seem to be intrapersonal learners, that is, they prefer to work individually, it may be beneficial to pause between parts of your explanation and let the students think about the explanation and then leave a short question or comment period. Intrapersonal learners prefer to work alone rather than in a team setting. Interpersonal learners would benefit from team-oriented teaching and small group work assignments. If students are visually oriented, it may be beneficial to use diagrams, charts and graphs to further back up the principles of your teaching. Some students may need to picture the relationships between ideas in order to apply them. Students of translation who have a scientific background may benefit from the problem-solving approach. The main implication of this theory is that students do not all learn in the same manner, but it does not signify that they cannot learn. It only means that instructors should try to teach in ways that will motivate the desire to learn in as many students as possible. Translation instructors will often find that their students come from varying backgrounds; some have scientific degrees, others have law degrees and some are interested in the humanities and the arts. Gardner's theory encourages instructors to take the various backgrounds into consideration when planning the strategies they use in the classroom.
The famous Russian psychologist, Vygotsky believed that instructors who organize their teaching based on how much knowledge the students already possess and move on from that point will aid the students to acquire confidence in their ability to learn and progress. He also postulated that language accompanies thought; he called it "inner speech" (Hodge, B. 2000, p.113.). Students should be allowed to verbalize and talk through their learning process. Vygotsky's point of view may be the point of focus for the foundation for learner-centered classrooms that provide students the opportunity to apply Svinicki's principles. Offering students options to allow for differences in their interests, making sure that there is both teacher-student, and student-student discussion of content and emphasizing class activities that encourage both understanding and application of the principles taught is the crux of learning (Brophy, 1997). Learner-centered classrooms can be considered to be the fruit of the self-regulated learning principle. There are many definitions for learner-centered classrooms; the most practical are those which stress student need as the basis for classroom teaching.
The development of technology at such a rapid pace has propelled the term "life-long learning" to become a part of learning theory and strategies. Not only do contemporary educators believe that all students can learn, but they also support the idea of continuing education once the student has graduated. A degree or a diploma no longer signals the end of one's education. Rather, it should indicate that degree holders are able to recognize the limits of their knowledge and have the ability to search further for answers. Instructors can only indicate means to access information and incite students to keep abreast of new additions to their profession. Motivation and learning are thus closely related.
On the university level, learning may be enhanced through the intrinsic motivation of the student. Intrinsic motivation is the belief that the material being taught has a direct relationship to the real-life needs of the students. For instance, a translation student who wants to work with the European Union after obtaining a degree will quickly grasp the necessity of knowing the intricacies of Europe's geography. Relevance to the student's future plans makes this assignment intrinsically valuable. The instructor will not have to insist that the student study carefully. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is the material benefits students earn when they prepare an assignment. A high mark is extrinsic motivation to do well; a scholarship, a high-profile internship are also examples of extrinsic motivation. Even though it is evident that a mature student should work for the intrinsic value learning has, extrinsic motivation is an added plus. In fact, there have been many studies done that have shown clearly how motivation enhances learning (Good,T. & Brophy, J. 1991). The self-efficacy theory has shown that students vary in the way they evaluate their ability to learn. Some students believe that they have a high ability to learn and generally perform at high standards. Others see themselves as slow learners, or see certain subjects as difficult to comprehend. They are directly influenced by their perceptions of their learning abilities and may not perform to their potential. University instructors should be sensitive to the perceptions students have of their abilities and teach so that students see that success is an achievable goal.
It is clear from the learning theories above that university education is not an end in itself and university instructors are not only fonts of knowledge. Today's university instructor provides tools so that students may themselves build their knowledge base.
How students learn languages and are able to use them to earn a living is quite a complex subject. If you experiment and look up the word "language" in a linguistic book index, you will see that you are asked to consult, "meaning." This is not at all surprising since languages do not exist in a void. Without meaning, language is gibberish. One of the most common normative definitions of the term "language" is: "a body of words and symbols governed by rules that tie people together into a speech community." When people of one speech community wish to communicate with those of another community, translators are needed. When methods of communication between communities are studied, education is also a factor to be considered. According to Hodge, (2000,p.1), "good teaching and good learning alike are so dependent on language and communication that the two are inseparable." Translators and media specialists have the enormous responsibility of assuming the role of a bridge between communities who either have the need to communicate such as in the translation of technical texts, or who desire access to another's cultural richness. Knowing the other's language as intimately as possible is the basic means of accomplishing these tasks with success.
The language study is one of the oldest domains in education. The four basic elements of culture: language, communication, translation and education have been examined since at least 1600 b.c. when we first have proof that linguists were questioning the sources of language (Framkin & Rodman, 1998:26). Even though language and discussion of how people learn language have been with us for a long time, there is a still a lot we do not know. Many linguistics textbooks still amazingly begin with statements such as "we know only this," "there is a lot we do not know," or "yet unknown mechanisms." Scholars are still trying to determine how people learn a first language and what parts of that mechanism are, if any, are transferred when we learn a second or third language. According to neurolinguists, the main language centers are located in the left hemisphere of the brain (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998:56). Broca's area, in the front, Wernicke's area in the back, and the angular gyrus, also located in the back of the brain are known to play the main role in a person's language ability (Steinberg, 1993: 180.)
As a translation instructor, it is definitely not necessary to become a neurolinguist, but it is helpful to be aware of the factors that influence language learning and take those into consideration as you plan your classes.
Sociolinguists, scholars who study language and how humans acquire it, believe that there are psychological, social and perhaps genetic factors that allow students to progress more or less rapidly than others. Specialists in semiotics have added that verbal and non-verbal factors influence how well students may learn languages (Hodge, B. 2000, p.21.)
Although his work may no longer be universally agreed upon, Noam Chomsky has made most of the inroads into language learning theory. According to Chomsky, there are certain language universals. The first is that all languages are learnable. The second states that all languages share certain characteristics, and the third contends that there are rules and principles that speakers apparently follow in making sentences. In the classroom, translation instructors are particularly concerned with points two and three. If all languages share characteristics, instructors should help the student recognize them and use these characteristics in their translation activities. In order to facilitate translation, instructors should make the rules of language available to their students. Chomsky also made a now very famous distinction between language competence and language performance. Competence is just the knowledge the student possesses of the grammar of a language; performance is considered the ability to produce through use of one's competence (Steinberg, 1993: 97).
In order to understand how adults may excel in language learning, researchers have delved into the ways children acquire language and have established some correlations. The main correlations seem to stem from the knowledge that children understand their native language before they actually speak it. They pick up the rhythm, pitch, stress and melody of the language and imitate the lyrics of the language before they actually speak it fluently first by saying single words, then two-word units, grammatically incorrect sentences and finally logical, correct expressions of meaning (Steinberg, p. 4).
In addition to understanding a language before speaking it, memory is also extremely important. Children learn languages more quickly when they are able to visualize the object, hear the sound of its name and then store that link in their minds for further retrieval. This fact is linked to basic theories of education from the time of John Locke who emphasized the need for a student to have access to an object so as to internalize its meaning.
Fromkin and Rodman also emphasized the important role creativity plays in the acquisition of language. Although there may be a certain primitive resemblance between human and animal language, animal language is finite and the messages are stimulus-controlled (1998:13). Human beings write fiction and poetry; they sing songs in duets, and in choirs. Animals do not.
Research on second-language acquisition is advancing very rapidly. Until Chomsky's research, repetition and mechanical drills comprised the essence of language learning curricula. But classroom drill was found to be insufficient; logic and communication competence are now emphasized.
Many brilliant approaches to teaching translation are applications of general learning and language learning theory. The functionalist approach to translation as explained in Translating as a purposeful Activity in 1997 by Christiane Nord emphasizes the need to make a translation "purposeful" (p. 1). Translators take practicality into consideration as they transfer a text from one language into another. There are many other approaches, as well.
In our everyday teaching of language, or language-related activities in the classroom we can take advantage of the above research. Through even such a brief overview, it is clear that instructors who use concrete examples, who introduce creativity into their activities and offer students opportunities to achieve success frequently are offering interesting and beneficial experiences for their students.
As an example of writing exercises useful to students, which aims at reducing the gap between a native speaker and a translation student, the following has proven successful in improving both language competence and business writing proficiency of student translators. It would be plausible to expand on this sample in a variety of ways by asking students to translate an already well-written e-mail and to compare the English version with the French or Spanish. The instructor's creativity and desire to fulfill the objective of supplying opportunities for students to feel comfortable in the use of their prime tool, language, are the only boundaries.
E-mail Writing
One 50-minute session would be necessary to ensure sufficient practice.
Objectives: At the end of the session, the student will: be aware of the need to follow international format; be exposed to the principles of modern e-mail practices and will practice writing e-mails.
Activity One: If students are in a computer lab for your class, ask them to open some e-mails and objectively analyze their professional content and format. 10 min.
Students will certainly point out SHOUTING, (all capital letters) in some e-mails.
They may also notice chatroom-style abbreviations such as "u" or "ur." They may notice that there is no correct closing, etc.
Inform students of the following e-mail facts:
An e mail in business must be composed as if it were a formal memo, or letter. The same rules of format apply.
Example:
Subject: Clients
Mary, can u send me your list of clients you have been dealing with for the last 5 months. Want to check if we their accounts are closed.
Ask students to correct this simple e-mail.
Example:
Subject: Client Accounts
Dear Mary,
Would you please send me a list of the clients with whom you have been dealing for the last 5 months?
The accounting department wants to verify if their payments are in order. We have been having many delays recently and we need to find a solution to the problem.
Sincerely,
Dan Fisher, Accounting
961-334-6788
Activity Two: 25 minutes for group work, 10 minutes for presentations. Ask students to work in pairs or small groups if they are used to doing so and provide two case studies from which they can choose. Provide each group with an overhead transparency if the class is not working on computer terminals. Each group is asked to provide a model e-mail to present to the whole class. The class will evaluate the e-mails for content, format and correct language use.
Sample Case Studies:
References
Brophy, J.E. & Good, T. L. (1997). Teacher-Student Relationships Causes and Consequences. USA: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1998). An Introduction to Language. Sixth Edition. USA: Harcourt and Brace.
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching Theory, Research and Practice.
Multicultural Education Series, James A. Banks, Editor. USA: Teachers College Press.
Gouadec, D. (December 1991). "Autrement dire.....Pour une redefinition des strategies De formation des traducteurs" META vol. 36, n.4, pp543-557.
Hodge, B. (1993). Teaching as Communication. The Effective teacher Series. Longman.
Kiraly, D. C. (1995). Pathways to Translation Pedagogy and Process. Kent, Ohio. Kent State University Press.
"Memory Enhancement Using Cognitive Theories to improve Teaching." Cuesta College Academic Support. [Retrieved 15 Dec 2004] http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/as/264.htm from "Using Cognitive Theories to improve Teaching" April 1997, The Teaching Professor. Vol. 3p.4.
Pym, A. "Trial, Error and Experimentation in the Training of Translation Teachers. [online] Retrieved 15 Dec.2004. http://www.fut.es/~apym/on-line/trialanderror.pdf.
This article was originally published at Translation Journal (http://accurapid.com/journal).
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
David Johnson, Robert Johnson, and Karl Smith. Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom.
Edina, Mn: Interaction Book Co., 1991.
I haven't heard it recently, but there was a time when it was common to hear people say, "those who can, do; those who can't, teach." Perhaps this saying has lost its appeal because first of all more and more educators have realized the advantages students reap when professionals add their competence to the academic framework. Second, there are many people both working in their fields and teaching in a university setting. Prominent translation trainers such as Gouadec, Kiraly and Pym have emphasized the advantages of work-simulated translation classes; professionals are the logical instructors in such programs (Gouadec: 1999; Kiraly: 1995; Pym: 2002).
Although practicing translators and interpreters are not in the classroom to learn, one of the major benefits to teaching is definitely how much teachers do learn about the complexity of the learning process by supporting student efforts to become competent professionals. One of the common errors that new instructors at university make however is to assume that their students are already expert learners. Because university students are adults, many instructors presume that their own role consists of presenting material once, applying it briefly and then moving on to a new concept. They often assume students are able to apply newly acquired concepts in foreign situations after having been exposed only briefly. However, this may not be the case. In reality, each classroom is made up of a set of individuals with their own backgrounds, learning styles and academic levels. Translation professionals preparing to share their techniques and experience with students will find it helpful to review the basic ways it is believed that students learn. This article explores learning approaches applicable to translation instructors whose goal it is to improve their students' language learning competence. Bob Hodge in Teaching as Communication (1993) stated that "language, above all, holds a community together" (p. 2). Even though children learn a language implicitly, people who use languages as the tools of their professions, such as translators and interpreters, must learn languages much more deeply than others. Although the discussion of how people learn is still a very controversial subject, those approaches that follow may be particularly applicable to adult learners.
One of the roles of a psychologist is to investigate the way people learn. One of the most influential explanations has been the behaviorist approach. An instructor who uses this approach would break up knowledge into small, logically organized pieces of information and provide positive reinforcement so that students learn to use that information. Behaviorists emphasize repetition of material so that it becomes a natural reaction for the student. Behaviorism has fallen from favor somewhat recently with the broadly held belief today that learning is a complex activity involving more than just repetition. However, language students and students who use language do benefit from a certain amount of well thought-out repetition and the use of models as a basis for their writing.
A more recent explanation of how to encourage learning, the cognitive approach, is quite appropriate to university teaching as it recognizes that learning is not only the recall of facts but also involves memory, reasoning, critical thinking and problem solving, all of which are applicable to the daily activities of a translator or interpreter. According to Svinicki in Memory Enhancement (1997), six principles of cognitive learning can be directly applied to learning.
- Students must see the information to be learned as important to their lives.
Implication: the instructor must show the students how this information is beneficial. - During learning, learners act on information to make it more meaningful.
Implication: Instructors and students should clarify information through examples, images, elaborations and links to prior knowledge. - Learners store information in long-term memory in an organized fashion related to their existing understanding of the world.
Implication: Instructors should provide an organized structure in their presentation of information. - Learners constantly check understanding which results in refinement of what is retained.
Implication: Instructors should provide opportunities. - Transfer of learning to new contexts is not automatic; it results from exposure to multiple applications.
Implication: Instructors should provide links for later transfer. - Learners who are aware of their learning strategies and monitor their learning habits will learn more rapidly.
Implication: Instructors should help students become aware of how they learn.
University instructors may incorporate appreciation of these eight types of intelligence to involve more students in learning efficiently. For example, if many students in the classroom seem to be intrapersonal learners, that is, they prefer to work individually, it may be beneficial to pause between parts of your explanation and let the students think about the explanation and then leave a short question or comment period. Intrapersonal learners prefer to work alone rather than in a team setting. Interpersonal learners would benefit from team-oriented teaching and small group work assignments. If students are visually oriented, it may be beneficial to use diagrams, charts and graphs to further back up the principles of your teaching. Some students may need to picture the relationships between ideas in order to apply them. Students of translation who have a scientific background may benefit from the problem-solving approach. The main implication of this theory is that students do not all learn in the same manner, but it does not signify that they cannot learn. It only means that instructors should try to teach in ways that will motivate the desire to learn in as many students as possible. Translation instructors will often find that their students come from varying backgrounds; some have scientific degrees, others have law degrees and some are interested in the humanities and the arts. Gardner's theory encourages instructors to take the various backgrounds into consideration when planning the strategies they use in the classroom.
The famous Russian psychologist, Vygotsky believed that instructors who organize their teaching based on how much knowledge the students already possess and move on from that point will aid the students to acquire confidence in their ability to learn and progress. He also postulated that language accompanies thought; he called it "inner speech" (Hodge, B. 2000, p.113.). Students should be allowed to verbalize and talk through their learning process. Vygotsky's point of view may be the point of focus for the foundation for learner-centered classrooms that provide students the opportunity to apply Svinicki's principles. Offering students options to allow for differences in their interests, making sure that there is both teacher-student, and student-student discussion of content and emphasizing class activities that encourage both understanding and application of the principles taught is the crux of learning (Brophy, 1997). Learner-centered classrooms can be considered to be the fruit of the self-regulated learning principle. There are many definitions for learner-centered classrooms; the most practical are those which stress student need as the basis for classroom teaching.
The development of technology at such a rapid pace has propelled the term "life-long learning" to become a part of learning theory and strategies. Not only do contemporary educators believe that all students can learn, but they also support the idea of continuing education once the student has graduated. A degree or a diploma no longer signals the end of one's education. Rather, it should indicate that degree holders are able to recognize the limits of their knowledge and have the ability to search further for answers. Instructors can only indicate means to access information and incite students to keep abreast of new additions to their profession. Motivation and learning are thus closely related.
On the university level, learning may be enhanced through the intrinsic motivation of the student. Intrinsic motivation is the belief that the material being taught has a direct relationship to the real-life needs of the students. For instance, a translation student who wants to work with the European Union after obtaining a degree will quickly grasp the necessity of knowing the intricacies of Europe's geography. Relevance to the student's future plans makes this assignment intrinsically valuable. The instructor will not have to insist that the student study carefully. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation is the material benefits students earn when they prepare an assignment. A high mark is extrinsic motivation to do well; a scholarship, a high-profile internship are also examples of extrinsic motivation. Even though it is evident that a mature student should work for the intrinsic value learning has, extrinsic motivation is an added plus. In fact, there have been many studies done that have shown clearly how motivation enhances learning (Good,T. & Brophy, J. 1991). The self-efficacy theory has shown that students vary in the way they evaluate their ability to learn. Some students believe that they have a high ability to learn and generally perform at high standards. Others see themselves as slow learners, or see certain subjects as difficult to comprehend. They are directly influenced by their perceptions of their learning abilities and may not perform to their potential. University instructors should be sensitive to the perceptions students have of their abilities and teach so that students see that success is an achievable goal.
It is clear from the learning theories above that university education is not an end in itself and university instructors are not only fonts of knowledge. Today's university instructor provides tools so that students may themselves build their knowledge base.
How students learn languages and are able to use them to earn a living is quite a complex subject. If you experiment and look up the word "language" in a linguistic book index, you will see that you are asked to consult, "meaning." This is not at all surprising since languages do not exist in a void. Without meaning, language is gibberish. One of the most common normative definitions of the term "language" is: "a body of words and symbols governed by rules that tie people together into a speech community." When people of one speech community wish to communicate with those of another community, translators are needed. When methods of communication between communities are studied, education is also a factor to be considered. According to Hodge, (2000,p.1), "good teaching and good learning alike are so dependent on language and communication that the two are inseparable." Translators and media specialists have the enormous responsibility of assuming the role of a bridge between communities who either have the need to communicate such as in the translation of technical texts, or who desire access to another's cultural richness. Knowing the other's language as intimately as possible is the basic means of accomplishing these tasks with success.
The language study is one of the oldest domains in education. The four basic elements of culture: language, communication, translation and education have been examined since at least 1600 b.c. when we first have proof that linguists were questioning the sources of language (Framkin & Rodman, 1998:26). Even though language and discussion of how people learn language have been with us for a long time, there is a still a lot we do not know. Many linguistics textbooks still amazingly begin with statements such as "we know only this," "there is a lot we do not know," or "yet unknown mechanisms." Scholars are still trying to determine how people learn a first language and what parts of that mechanism are, if any, are transferred when we learn a second or third language. According to neurolinguists, the main language centers are located in the left hemisphere of the brain (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998:56). Broca's area, in the front, Wernicke's area in the back, and the angular gyrus, also located in the back of the brain are known to play the main role in a person's language ability (Steinberg, 1993: 180.)
As a translation instructor, it is definitely not necessary to become a neurolinguist, but it is helpful to be aware of the factors that influence language learning and take those into consideration as you plan your classes.
Sociolinguists, scholars who study language and how humans acquire it, believe that there are psychological, social and perhaps genetic factors that allow students to progress more or less rapidly than others. Specialists in semiotics have added that verbal and non-verbal factors influence how well students may learn languages (Hodge, B. 2000, p.21.)
Although his work may no longer be universally agreed upon, Noam Chomsky has made most of the inroads into language learning theory. According to Chomsky, there are certain language universals. The first is that all languages are learnable. The second states that all languages share certain characteristics, and the third contends that there are rules and principles that speakers apparently follow in making sentences. In the classroom, translation instructors are particularly concerned with points two and three. If all languages share characteristics, instructors should help the student recognize them and use these characteristics in their translation activities. In order to facilitate translation, instructors should make the rules of language available to their students. Chomsky also made a now very famous distinction between language competence and language performance. Competence is just the knowledge the student possesses of the grammar of a language; performance is considered the ability to produce through use of one's competence (Steinberg, 1993: 97).
In order to understand how adults may excel in language learning, researchers have delved into the ways children acquire language and have established some correlations. The main correlations seem to stem from the knowledge that children understand their native language before they actually speak it. They pick up the rhythm, pitch, stress and melody of the language and imitate the lyrics of the language before they actually speak it fluently first by saying single words, then two-word units, grammatically incorrect sentences and finally logical, correct expressions of meaning (Steinberg, p. 4).
In addition to understanding a language before speaking it, memory is also extremely important. Children learn languages more quickly when they are able to visualize the object, hear the sound of its name and then store that link in their minds for further retrieval. This fact is linked to basic theories of education from the time of John Locke who emphasized the need for a student to have access to an object so as to internalize its meaning.
Fromkin and Rodman also emphasized the important role creativity plays in the acquisition of language. Although there may be a certain primitive resemblance between human and animal language, animal language is finite and the messages are stimulus-controlled (1998:13). Human beings write fiction and poetry; they sing songs in duets, and in choirs. Animals do not.
Research on second-language acquisition is advancing very rapidly. Until Chomsky's research, repetition and mechanical drills comprised the essence of language learning curricula. But classroom drill was found to be insufficient; logic and communication competence are now emphasized.
Many brilliant approaches to teaching translation are applications of general learning and language learning theory. The functionalist approach to translation as explained in Translating as a purposeful Activity in 1997 by Christiane Nord emphasizes the need to make a translation "purposeful" (p. 1). Translators take practicality into consideration as they transfer a text from one language into another. There are many other approaches, as well.
In our everyday teaching of language, or language-related activities in the classroom we can take advantage of the above research. Through even such a brief overview, it is clear that instructors who use concrete examples, who introduce creativity into their activities and offer students opportunities to achieve success frequently are offering interesting and beneficial experiences for their students.
As an example of writing exercises useful to students, which aims at reducing the gap between a native speaker and a translation student, the following has proven successful in improving both language competence and business writing proficiency of student translators. It would be plausible to expand on this sample in a variety of ways by asking students to translate an already well-written e-mail and to compare the English version with the French or Spanish. The instructor's creativity and desire to fulfill the objective of supplying opportunities for students to feel comfortable in the use of their prime tool, language, are the only boundaries.
E-mail Writing
One 50-minute session would be necessary to ensure sufficient practice.
Objectives: At the end of the session, the student will: be aware of the need to follow international format; be exposed to the principles of modern e-mail practices and will practice writing e-mails.
Activity One: If students are in a computer lab for your class, ask them to open some e-mails and objectively analyze their professional content and format. 10 min.
Students will certainly point out SHOUTING, (all capital letters) in some e-mails.
They may also notice chatroom-style abbreviations such as "u" or "ur." They may notice that there is no correct closing, etc.
Inform students of the following e-mail facts:
An e mail in business must be composed as if it were a formal memo, or letter. The same rules of format apply.
- Begin the e-mail with a salutation (Dear Mr. Smith, Dear Ms. Jamison, etc.)
- Repeat the subject line in the first line of the e-mail.
- Organize the e-mail in paragraphs. Use the direct approach: i.e., ask, or inquire in the first paragraph, explain why in the second paragraph and close with a diplomatic ending.
- End your e-mail with a closing such as, sincerely.
- Include your signature with an address, and a phone number or fax. This makes the e-mail less "virtual."
Example:
Subject: Clients
Mary, can u send me your list of clients you have been dealing with for the last 5 months. Want to check if we their accounts are closed.
Ask students to correct this simple e-mail.
Example:
Subject: Client Accounts
Dear Mary,
Would you please send me a list of the clients with whom you have been dealing for the last 5 months?
The accounting department wants to verify if their payments are in order. We have been having many delays recently and we need to find a solution to the problem.
Sincerely,
Dan Fisher, Accounting
961-334-6788
Activity Two: 25 minutes for group work, 10 minutes for presentations. Ask students to work in pairs or small groups if they are used to doing so and provide two case studies from which they can choose. Provide each group with an overhead transparency if the class is not working on computer terminals. Each group is asked to provide a model e-mail to present to the whole class. The class will evaluate the e-mails for content, format and correct language use.
Sample Case Studies:
- Your company produces paper products of a very high quality. You wish to expand into the Easter European market, especially those countries which have recently become members of the European Union. Write an e-mail to the European Union Foreign Office department and inquire as to the formalities you must fulfill, as well as the possibilities for a company located outside the European Union to conduct trade with EU countries. Address the Trade office.
- You are the translator for the same paper product company. You have received many complaints from customers recently saying that English and Spanish are the only languages into which the directions for your new paper towel dispenser have been printed. Write a customer and assure her that the company plans to have translations in six new languages by the end of the month. Inform the customer that online services are available while she is waiting for the new packaging to be produced.
References
Brophy, J.E. & Good, T. L. (1997). Teacher-Student Relationships Causes and Consequences. USA: Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. (1998). An Introduction to Language. Sixth Edition. USA: Harcourt and Brace.
Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive Teaching Theory, Research and Practice.
Multicultural Education Series, James A. Banks, Editor. USA: Teachers College Press.
Gouadec, D. (December 1991). "Autrement dire.....Pour une redefinition des strategies De formation des traducteurs" META vol. 36, n.4, pp543-557.
Hodge, B. (1993). Teaching as Communication. The Effective teacher Series. Longman.
Kiraly, D. C. (1995). Pathways to Translation Pedagogy and Process. Kent, Ohio. Kent State University Press.
"Memory Enhancement Using Cognitive Theories to improve Teaching." Cuesta College Academic Support. [Retrieved 15 Dec 2004] http://academic.cuesta.edu/acasupp/as/264.htm from "Using Cognitive Theories to improve Teaching" April 1997, The Teaching Professor. Vol. 3p.4.
Pym, A. "Trial, Error and Experimentation in the Training of Translation Teachers. [online] Retrieved 15 Dec.2004. http://www.fut.es/~apym/on-line/trialanderror.pdf.
This article was originally published at Translation Journal (http://accurapid.com/journal).
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Tuesday, March 24, 2009
The Challenge Of Learning The Chinese Language
By John Davison
Chinese is a language, or a group of languages, spoken by 1.3 billion people worldwide. If you believe Chinese to be one language, rather than a grouping, it is the single most commonly spoken language on the planet. It is spoken in countries like China, Taiwan Singapore, and Malaysia. If you are interested in learning Chinese, it can be intimidating and challenging. But learning Chinese can also be rewarding, and knowing it can have benefits for your career, and help to improve your travels to Asia.
If you decide to learn the Chinese language, there a number of ways you can go about doing so. As a college student, you can study Mandarin Chinese and earn a degree in it. Earning a college degree in Chinese will provide you with a solid knowledge of formal, or Mandarin, Chinese. You will also be proficient in reading and writing the alphabet, which is a standard alphabet throughout the Chinese-speaking world. If you are established in your career, and find it necessary to learn Chinese for business dealings and /or business-associated travel, you can enroll in an accelerated Chinese language course online, or by purchasing audiotapes that teach quick techniques, which will help you to rapidly learn how to speak basic Mandarin Chinese. Learning to speak Chinese this way is convenient if you need to learn it before an important business trip. There are several learning centers that provide accelerated online programs in Chinese, and many lesson on tape available for purchase.
If you are a student majoring of minoring in Chinese, or if you are a tourist with a desire to travel to Asia, an ideal way to learn the Chinese language is through participation in an immersion program. By doing this, you will not only learn how to speak Chinese, but you will learn about and experience Chinese culture. By studying Chinese in a city like Beijing, where the language is natively spoken, you will become part of the life and culture, and you will find learning to speak the Chinese language is much easier than you thought. Since it is a total immersion into the Chinese world, you will learn all conversational and idiomatic styles of the language. You will interact everyday with people who are native speakers of Chinese, and who can’t or won’t speak English with you. You will be taken on guided tours of the famous landmarks, as well as the everyday places. You will grow to understand and recognize the value of the ancient Chinese culture: the history, the art, the architecture, the food, and the people. You will attend courses in which you will learn the complex Chinese alphabet, how to read it, and how to write it as well. Learning the Chinese language by attending an immersion program is an ideal way to go.
If you are fluent in the Chinese language, not only could it help you if are established in a career, but it could also open doors to new careers for you. For example, you could take a job as a foreign language translator, where you would be responsible for translating websites, training documents, and other important business documents, while helping to bridge the communication gap between two very different cultures. You might also consider a career as a teacher if English as a second language. You have the opportunity to relocate to a Chinese-speaking nation, and teach the English language to Chinese students. Being fluent in Chinese will definitely make your relocation less stressful.
Learning how to speak, read, and write the Chinese language has many advantages. It gives you the potential to enhance you career by working and/or traveling abroad, or you would have opportunities to embark on new careers as a translator or a teacher. If you plan to travel to Asia, learning Chinese will make your journeys less stressful and more enjoyable. Taking the time to learning the Chinese language will open your eyes to a new and often misunderstood culture, and is an achievement that can be personally and professionally fulfilling.
About the Author: John is a director of numerous Internet companies and is a published author. Many articles have been produced on a variety of subjects with excellent content and depth. All his articles may be reproduced provided that an active link is included to http://www.foreign-languages-school.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Chinese is a language, or a group of languages, spoken by 1.3 billion people worldwide. If you believe Chinese to be one language, rather than a grouping, it is the single most commonly spoken language on the planet. It is spoken in countries like China, Taiwan Singapore, and Malaysia. If you are interested in learning Chinese, it can be intimidating and challenging. But learning Chinese can also be rewarding, and knowing it can have benefits for your career, and help to improve your travels to Asia.
If you decide to learn the Chinese language, there a number of ways you can go about doing so. As a college student, you can study Mandarin Chinese and earn a degree in it. Earning a college degree in Chinese will provide you with a solid knowledge of formal, or Mandarin, Chinese. You will also be proficient in reading and writing the alphabet, which is a standard alphabet throughout the Chinese-speaking world. If you are established in your career, and find it necessary to learn Chinese for business dealings and /or business-associated travel, you can enroll in an accelerated Chinese language course online, or by purchasing audiotapes that teach quick techniques, which will help you to rapidly learn how to speak basic Mandarin Chinese. Learning to speak Chinese this way is convenient if you need to learn it before an important business trip. There are several learning centers that provide accelerated online programs in Chinese, and many lesson on tape available for purchase.
If you are a student majoring of minoring in Chinese, or if you are a tourist with a desire to travel to Asia, an ideal way to learn the Chinese language is through participation in an immersion program. By doing this, you will not only learn how to speak Chinese, but you will learn about and experience Chinese culture. By studying Chinese in a city like Beijing, where the language is natively spoken, you will become part of the life and culture, and you will find learning to speak the Chinese language is much easier than you thought. Since it is a total immersion into the Chinese world, you will learn all conversational and idiomatic styles of the language. You will interact everyday with people who are native speakers of Chinese, and who can’t or won’t speak English with you. You will be taken on guided tours of the famous landmarks, as well as the everyday places. You will grow to understand and recognize the value of the ancient Chinese culture: the history, the art, the architecture, the food, and the people. You will attend courses in which you will learn the complex Chinese alphabet, how to read it, and how to write it as well. Learning the Chinese language by attending an immersion program is an ideal way to go.
If you are fluent in the Chinese language, not only could it help you if are established in a career, but it could also open doors to new careers for you. For example, you could take a job as a foreign language translator, where you would be responsible for translating websites, training documents, and other important business documents, while helping to bridge the communication gap between two very different cultures. You might also consider a career as a teacher if English as a second language. You have the opportunity to relocate to a Chinese-speaking nation, and teach the English language to Chinese students. Being fluent in Chinese will definitely make your relocation less stressful.
Learning how to speak, read, and write the Chinese language has many advantages. It gives you the potential to enhance you career by working and/or traveling abroad, or you would have opportunities to embark on new careers as a translator or a teacher. If you plan to travel to Asia, learning Chinese will make your journeys less stressful and more enjoyable. Taking the time to learning the Chinese language will open your eyes to a new and often misunderstood culture, and is an achievement that can be personally and professionally fulfilling.
About the Author: John is a director of numerous Internet companies and is a published author. Many articles have been produced on a variety of subjects with excellent content and depth. All his articles may be reproduced provided that an active link is included to http://www.foreign-languages-school.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Monday, March 23, 2009
By René Graeber,
Preetz, Germany
rene.graeber[at]web.de
http://www.smart-ways-to-make-money.com
Many people, particularly students, would love to be able to absorb information faster. But before retaining information, they have to go through the first stage of learning, which is reading.
For many individuals who are pressed for time, speed reading has become a necessity. However, it's not just the reading part that is important. Equally essential is for the reader to fully understand the words coming out from the book or paper.
Here are some great tips to read and comprehend faster.
1) Relax.
If you're in the stressed mode, it would be much more difficult to concentrate; hence, it would just be a lot harder for the information to sink in.
2) Know what you want.
Focus on the areas that you really need to learn. Some people read all parts of a book, when all they need to know is a specific chapter.
Know your priority. If you need to find out about a certain subject, go to the Table of Contents and search for the heading that best suits your need. If you need to learn more, then adjust accordingly. The important thing is to weed out the stuffs that you don't currently need.
3) Get rid of the structure words.
Did you know that around 60% of the words we read are structure words? Examples are the words "the, or, and." They are essential in the structure of the sentences; but when you ignore them, they basically mean the same thing. They only serve to beautify, yet you can understand what you are reading even without them. Try not to focus too much attention on structure words.
4) Practice, practice, practice.
When I started exercising with weights, I can only lift the lighter ones. As the time goes by, I slowly add more and more weights as my body tends to adjust and become more comfortable carrying heavier ones.
The same concept goes for speed reading. Set a goal. Figure out how fast you can read, then create a plan to increase your ability.
If you can read 200 words per minute, set a goal to read 250 words a minute. After accomplishing this feat, set a goal to read 300 words per minute.
This takes time and practice, but the effort is all worth it. If this is your first time to set such a goal, read first those materials you are familiar with.
Carry on with more difficult ones as you progress. This way, you're not overwhelming yourself with understanding different new words and at the same time developing your speed reading skills.
About the Author: You can find out more on how to effectively double your reading speed and accelerate your learning abilities to the extreme on Rene Graeber´s website at http://www.smart-ways-to-make-money.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Preetz, Germany
rene.graeber[at]web.de
http://www.smart-ways-to-make-money.com
Many people, particularly students, would love to be able to absorb information faster. But before retaining information, they have to go through the first stage of learning, which is reading.
For many individuals who are pressed for time, speed reading has become a necessity. However, it's not just the reading part that is important. Equally essential is for the reader to fully understand the words coming out from the book or paper.
Here are some great tips to read and comprehend faster.
1) Relax.
If you're in the stressed mode, it would be much more difficult to concentrate; hence, it would just be a lot harder for the information to sink in.
2) Know what you want.
Focus on the areas that you really need to learn. Some people read all parts of a book, when all they need to know is a specific chapter.
Know your priority. If you need to find out about a certain subject, go to the Table of Contents and search for the heading that best suits your need. If you need to learn more, then adjust accordingly. The important thing is to weed out the stuffs that you don't currently need.
3) Get rid of the structure words.
Did you know that around 60% of the words we read are structure words? Examples are the words "the, or, and." They are essential in the structure of the sentences; but when you ignore them, they basically mean the same thing. They only serve to beautify, yet you can understand what you are reading even without them. Try not to focus too much attention on structure words.
4) Practice, practice, practice.
When I started exercising with weights, I can only lift the lighter ones. As the time goes by, I slowly add more and more weights as my body tends to adjust and become more comfortable carrying heavier ones.
The same concept goes for speed reading. Set a goal. Figure out how fast you can read, then create a plan to increase your ability.
If you can read 200 words per minute, set a goal to read 250 words a minute. After accomplishing this feat, set a goal to read 300 words per minute.
This takes time and practice, but the effort is all worth it. If this is your first time to set such a goal, read first those materials you are familiar with.
Carry on with more difficult ones as you progress. This way, you're not overwhelming yourself with understanding different new words and at the same time developing your speed reading skills.
About the Author: You can find out more on how to effectively double your reading speed and accelerate your learning abilities to the extreme on Rene Graeber´s website at http://www.smart-ways-to-make-money.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Sunday, March 22, 2009
Learn English Laughing
By Frank Gerace, Ph.D,
New York, U.S.A.
fg[at]leerespoder.com
http://www.GoodAccent.com
Humor and Learning
Humor is important in learning a language. Not only does it enable the student to learn new vocabulary in context but it also is a motivating force. When a student understands a joke she begins to feel like she is in the world of the new language. Puns are especially valuable because they stress meaning. We'll give a few jokes and puns as examples and hoope that they will move other teachers to use this powerful resource.
Puns
Laughing? Well, maybe not. Puns usually make people groan. They say that for a pun to be good, it has to be really bad. As a matter of fact, they are called "groaners". A pun is a little word game, playing with language. Most puns use a word that has two meanings, or use two words that sound almost the same.
Here are some puns. Use your knowledge of English, and your dictionary if necessary, to explain the pun.
Example: Why is an empty purse always the same? Because there is never any change in it. In this pun, the word "change" has two meanings: 1. coins and small bills, 2. alteration.
1. Do you know why it's easy for a hunter to find a leopard? Because a leopard is always spotted.
"to spot", verb: to see, to identify. "spotted", adjective: with spots.
2. When gambling became legal in the city, everyone agreed that the city was now a bettor place.
What we hear could be either of two words that sound the same: "better", adjective, "an improvement", therefore "an improved place". "bettor", noun, "gambler", "someone who bets", therefore entonces "a place for gamblers".
3. The principal called the young cross-eyed teacher into his office. "I'm sorry to say, Ms. Jones, we're going to have to let you go." "But why, sir? I thought I was doing a good job." "It's simple," said the principal, "you can't control your pupils.".
Of course, the word "pupil" could refer to a student or to the middle of the iris of the eye..
4. My friend Sam had decided his kitchen needed painting, and instead of hiring a professional, he decided to do it himself. In the afternoon, I went over to his house to see if he needed some help. When I arrived, I found Sam working hard painting the kitchen walls. But instead of wearing old clothes, he was wearing a leather jacket and a ski parka. I asked him why he was dressed that way on such a hot day. He brought me the paint bucket and told me to read the instructions. I did. It said, "For best results, put on two coats."
The pun is the word "coat" either another layer or paint or an article of clothing.
5. The previous pun about the extra "coat" reminds me of the dog that has a fur coat and pants.
OK, the dog has a fur coat but it doesn't have fur trousers. In this case "pants" o the way dogs breathe rapidly and noisily.
Those were puns. Now for a few jokes.
Jokes
Three Police Jokes
First Joke:
A police officer stops a woman for speeding and asks her very nicely if he could see her license.
She replies in a huff, "I wish you guys would get your act together. Just yesterday you take away my license and then today you expect me to show it to you!"
Vocabulary and Expressions:
"in a huff": annoyed
"get your act together": get organized
Second Joke: While driving along the back roads of a small town, two truckers came to an overpass with a sign that read CLEARANCE 11'3".
They got out and measured their rig, which was 12'4".
"What do you think?" one asked the other.
The driver looked around carefully, then shifted into first. "Not a cop in sight. Let's take a chance!"
Vocabulary and Expresssions:
"overpass": viaduct
"rig": here truck. Any specialized tool or mechanical arrangement.
"clearance": room to pass, or "clear". "Clearance" is the noun of the verb "to clear" which means (among other meanings) de: "go through without touching"
11' 3" is the abbreviation of 11 feet 3 inches;
12' 4" is the abbreviation of 12 feet 4 inches.
Third Joke:
Recently, a distraught wife went to the local police station, along with her next-door neighbor, to report that her husband was missing. The policeman asked for a description of the missing man.
The wife said, "He is 35 years old, 6 foot 2, has dark eyes, dark wavy hair, an athletic build, weighs 185 pounds, is soft-spoken, and is good to the children."
The next-door neighbor protested, "Your husband is 54 years old, 5 foot 6, chubby, weighs 275 pounds, is bald, has a big mouth, and is mean to your children."
The wife replied, "Yes, but who wants HIM back?"
Vocabulary and Expressions:
Hubby: popularform of "husband", spouse
distraught: stressed, very worried.
chubby: slightly fat
mean: In this context, strict, severe, even a little cruel
bald: no hair
next-door neighbor: the person who lives in the house to one side of yours
6 foot 4: six feet and 4 inches
How to keep on Learning by Laughing?
You can enter "esl puns" or "esl joke" in Google to find many sites that share our belief that puns and jokes are good ways to help learners of English.
You can also find more help for Learners of English at: http://www.goodaccent.com/accentbooks.htm
About the Author: Frank Gerace, Ph.D. has worked in United Nations and national communication and education projects in Latin America. He has taught at public and private universities in Peru and Bolivia. He currently teaches English in a major college of the CUNY (City University of New York) system. His kids site is: http://www.BooksLibros.com/SpanishForNinos.htm
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
New York, U.S.A.
fg[at]leerespoder.com
http://www.GoodAccent.com
Humor and Learning
Humor is important in learning a language. Not only does it enable the student to learn new vocabulary in context but it also is a motivating force. When a student understands a joke she begins to feel like she is in the world of the new language. Puns are especially valuable because they stress meaning. We'll give a few jokes and puns as examples and hoope that they will move other teachers to use this powerful resource.
Puns
Laughing? Well, maybe not. Puns usually make people groan. They say that for a pun to be good, it has to be really bad. As a matter of fact, they are called "groaners". A pun is a little word game, playing with language. Most puns use a word that has two meanings, or use two words that sound almost the same.
Here are some puns. Use your knowledge of English, and your dictionary if necessary, to explain the pun.
Example: Why is an empty purse always the same? Because there is never any change in it. In this pun, the word "change" has two meanings: 1. coins and small bills, 2. alteration.
1. Do you know why it's easy for a hunter to find a leopard? Because a leopard is always spotted.
"to spot", verb: to see, to identify. "spotted", adjective: with spots.
2. When gambling became legal in the city, everyone agreed that the city was now a bettor place.
What we hear could be either of two words that sound the same: "better", adjective, "an improvement", therefore "an improved place". "bettor", noun, "gambler", "someone who bets", therefore entonces "a place for gamblers".
3. The principal called the young cross-eyed teacher into his office. "I'm sorry to say, Ms. Jones, we're going to have to let you go." "But why, sir? I thought I was doing a good job." "It's simple," said the principal, "you can't control your pupils.".
Of course, the word "pupil" could refer to a student or to the middle of the iris of the eye..
4. My friend Sam had decided his kitchen needed painting, and instead of hiring a professional, he decided to do it himself. In the afternoon, I went over to his house to see if he needed some help. When I arrived, I found Sam working hard painting the kitchen walls. But instead of wearing old clothes, he was wearing a leather jacket and a ski parka. I asked him why he was dressed that way on such a hot day. He brought me the paint bucket and told me to read the instructions. I did. It said, "For best results, put on two coats."
The pun is the word "coat" either another layer or paint or an article of clothing.
5. The previous pun about the extra "coat" reminds me of the dog that has a fur coat and pants.
OK, the dog has a fur coat but it doesn't have fur trousers. In this case "pants" o the way dogs breathe rapidly and noisily.
Those were puns. Now for a few jokes.
Jokes
Three Police Jokes
First Joke:
A police officer stops a woman for speeding and asks her very nicely if he could see her license.
She replies in a huff, "I wish you guys would get your act together. Just yesterday you take away my license and then today you expect me to show it to you!"
Vocabulary and Expressions:
"in a huff": annoyed
"get your act together": get organized
Second Joke: While driving along the back roads of a small town, two truckers came to an overpass with a sign that read CLEARANCE 11'3".
They got out and measured their rig, which was 12'4".
"What do you think?" one asked the other.
The driver looked around carefully, then shifted into first. "Not a cop in sight. Let's take a chance!"
Vocabulary and Expresssions:
"overpass": viaduct
"rig": here truck. Any specialized tool or mechanical arrangement.
"clearance": room to pass, or "clear". "Clearance" is the noun of the verb "to clear" which means (among other meanings) de: "go through without touching"
11' 3" is the abbreviation of 11 feet 3 inches;
12' 4" is the abbreviation of 12 feet 4 inches.
Third Joke:
Recently, a distraught wife went to the local police station, along with her next-door neighbor, to report that her husband was missing. The policeman asked for a description of the missing man.
The wife said, "He is 35 years old, 6 foot 2, has dark eyes, dark wavy hair, an athletic build, weighs 185 pounds, is soft-spoken, and is good to the children."
The next-door neighbor protested, "Your husband is 54 years old, 5 foot 6, chubby, weighs 275 pounds, is bald, has a big mouth, and is mean to your children."
The wife replied, "Yes, but who wants HIM back?"
Vocabulary and Expressions:
Hubby: popularform of "husband", spouse
distraught: stressed, very worried.
chubby: slightly fat
mean: In this context, strict, severe, even a little cruel
bald: no hair
next-door neighbor: the person who lives in the house to one side of yours
6 foot 4: six feet and 4 inches
How to keep on Learning by Laughing?
You can enter "esl puns" or "esl joke" in Google to find many sites that share our belief that puns and jokes are good ways to help learners of English.
You can also find more help for Learners of English at: http://www.goodaccent.com/accentbooks.htm
About the Author: Frank Gerace, Ph.D. has worked in United Nations and national communication and education projects in Latin America. He has taught at public and private universities in Peru and Bolivia. He currently teaches English in a major college of the CUNY (City University of New York) system. His kids site is: http://www.BooksLibros.com/SpanishForNinos.htm
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Saturday, March 21, 2009
Learn The Korean Language
By John Davison,
Director of numerous Internet Companies,
Published Author
mark[at]6nbls25.com
The Korean language is spoken by more than 70 million people, primarily in North and South Korea. There are a number of native Korean language speakers in several countries, including the United States Australia, Canada, and Japan. The Korean language is made up of an alphabet of 28 characters that have been in used for hundreds of years. These characters are in no way similar the western alphabet that makes up the English, French, Spanish, and other languages. This can prove to be intimidating for someone interested in learning the Korean language. If you are a soldier, a diplomat, or just someone planning a trip to South Korea, learning the language will help you to break down cultural and communication barriers.
There are several ways you can learn the Korean language, to varying degrees. If you study Korean at a college or University, you will receive an intensive education on the alphabet, reading, writing, and speaking the language that will give you a leg up on communicating with Korean citizens and work associates. If you are planning a career as a United States diplomat, for example, there is a chance that your job will take you to Korea. Being able to communicate with native Koreans will help you make the most of your job and experience in a new land. You will be a better representative of your country if you are able to demonstrate your willingness to learn the indigenous language. Your cultural sensitivity will be appreciated. Also, if you plan to be a teacher of English as a second language, being fluent in Korean will make your experience living there more pleasant. As an instructor of English, you will be teaching Korean students, but you will also be learning from them.
Another way to learn the Korean language is by enrolling in one of many accelerated courses that are available through community colleges and even online. An accelerated course in Korean will provide you with a basic knowledge of the language, which will allow you to understand basic phrases, and ask basic questions. You will also be introduced to the Korean alphabet, which might seem daunting. There is language instruction available for purchase, as well. You do not learn the language by memorization. Rather, native Korean speakers provide real-life scenarios that provide you the opportunity to “learn as you go”, using voice technology over your computer. You get immediate feedback, which is a less stressful way for you to learn. When the learning process is less stressful, you are more apt to take the information in and retain, thus learning the Korean language with greater ease than you thought possible.
Whether you are interested in learning the Korean language for your own intellectual development and enjoyment, or you are inclined to do so for a job such a international diplomacy or teaching, learning to speak, read, and write Korean gives you the knowledge to communicate with people of a different culture, and if you are working abroad, helps you to have a less worrisome experience communicating with native Koreans. There is nothing more stressful than being unable to communicate with people while in a foreign country. Learning Korean will alleviate that stress, as well as make a good impression with your overseas associates. Learning the Korean language will enhance your travels and work experiences in that you will be appreciate the lives and culture of the Korean people, a people that seem mysterious to us. Learning a second language such as the Korean language is an intellectually and personally improving achievement that will provide many benefits to you professionally and intellectually. http://www.foreign-languages-school.com
Find the essential information on where and how to learn a new or second language at Learn Korean Language
About the Author: John is a director of numerous Internet companies and is a published author. Many articles have been produced on a variety of subjects with excellent content and depth. All his articles may be reproduced provided that an active link is included to http://www.foreign-languages-school.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Director of numerous Internet Companies,
Published Author
mark[at]6nbls25.com
The Korean language is spoken by more than 70 million people, primarily in North and South Korea. There are a number of native Korean language speakers in several countries, including the United States Australia, Canada, and Japan. The Korean language is made up of an alphabet of 28 characters that have been in used for hundreds of years. These characters are in no way similar the western alphabet that makes up the English, French, Spanish, and other languages. This can prove to be intimidating for someone interested in learning the Korean language. If you are a soldier, a diplomat, or just someone planning a trip to South Korea, learning the language will help you to break down cultural and communication barriers.
There are several ways you can learn the Korean language, to varying degrees. If you study Korean at a college or University, you will receive an intensive education on the alphabet, reading, writing, and speaking the language that will give you a leg up on communicating with Korean citizens and work associates. If you are planning a career as a United States diplomat, for example, there is a chance that your job will take you to Korea. Being able to communicate with native Koreans will help you make the most of your job and experience in a new land. You will be a better representative of your country if you are able to demonstrate your willingness to learn the indigenous language. Your cultural sensitivity will be appreciated. Also, if you plan to be a teacher of English as a second language, being fluent in Korean will make your experience living there more pleasant. As an instructor of English, you will be teaching Korean students, but you will also be learning from them.
Another way to learn the Korean language is by enrolling in one of many accelerated courses that are available through community colleges and even online. An accelerated course in Korean will provide you with a basic knowledge of the language, which will allow you to understand basic phrases, and ask basic questions. You will also be introduced to the Korean alphabet, which might seem daunting. There is language instruction available for purchase, as well. You do not learn the language by memorization. Rather, native Korean speakers provide real-life scenarios that provide you the opportunity to “learn as you go”, using voice technology over your computer. You get immediate feedback, which is a less stressful way for you to learn. When the learning process is less stressful, you are more apt to take the information in and retain, thus learning the Korean language with greater ease than you thought possible.
Whether you are interested in learning the Korean language for your own intellectual development and enjoyment, or you are inclined to do so for a job such a international diplomacy or teaching, learning to speak, read, and write Korean gives you the knowledge to communicate with people of a different culture, and if you are working abroad, helps you to have a less worrisome experience communicating with native Koreans. There is nothing more stressful than being unable to communicate with people while in a foreign country. Learning Korean will alleviate that stress, as well as make a good impression with your overseas associates. Learning the Korean language will enhance your travels and work experiences in that you will be appreciate the lives and culture of the Korean people, a people that seem mysterious to us. Learning a second language such as the Korean language is an intellectually and personally improving achievement that will provide many benefits to you professionally and intellectually. http://www.foreign-languages-school.com
Find the essential information on where and how to learn a new or second language at Learn Korean Language
About the Author: John is a director of numerous Internet companies and is a published author. Many articles have been produced on a variety of subjects with excellent content and depth. All his articles may be reproduced provided that an active link is included to http://www.foreign-languages-school.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Thursday, February 12, 2009
Financial Freedom? Here’s The Only Real Question
By Walt F.J. Goodridge
New York, NY, U.S.A.
http://www.passionprofit.com/
PREAMBLE: The only way to take control of your life, raise your standard of living and move beyond merely surviving is to create your own unique product or service that you offer to increasing numbers of people in exchange for the things of value that you desire. This simple formula applies to countries as well as people. A self-sufficient economy has its own products or services of value to export to the world. Similarly, a self-sufficient individual has something of value to exchange in the global marketplace. That thing of value is based on your natural talent, skill, or interest - in other words, your passion.
NOTE: The following article was originally written for the citizens of the island nation of Saipan. It therefore includes references of a nature unique to that nation's economic situation.
When you think of what can help you elevate yourself from your current economic situation, it's important not to lose sight of a few important ideas and truths about money, value, and economics.
I. MONEY IS A MEANS OF EXCHANGE
No one ever gives you money except in exchange for something of value.
II. EXCHANGE IS THE REAL ISSUE
Don't let anyone mislead you. The only reason we focus on money is simply because the world has agreed that money is the basis of exchange that we're going to use. I have eggs. You have a cow. If you want what I have, and I want what you have, then we can exchange my eggs for your cow. But you may not want eggs. You may want something that I do not have. And I may not want a cow. I may want something you do not have, like a car. So we all agree that eggs are worth a certain amount of money, and that a car is worth a certain amount of money. I can now sell my eggs for money, and get the money to buy a car. But all I really did was trade eggs for a car, using money as the means of exchange. So it's not the money that's driving the economic engine, it's the exchange.
Now, then, there are four ways that one can engage in the process of exchange:
III. PRODUCTS ARE THE BASIS OF EXCHANGE
"When a whole society demands a high
standard of living and yet doesn’t concentrate
on the personal production of exchangeable
products, it is finished."—The Dynamics of Money
So how does one engage in exchange with the world? Simple. You need a product. A PRODUCT can be defined as “a high quality service or article in the hands of the consumer in exchange for a valuable. It is something that can be exchanged with other activities in return for support.”
IV. THE QUESTION IS…
So the single, most important question to be asked of those who steer the course of nations, its citizens, investors, business owners, and potential Saipanpreneurs is: WHAT ARE WE PRODUCING?
When someone suggests a solution to the economic situation, ask him, "Great idea, but what are we producing?"
When someone suggests an idea for how to get loans and federal assistance, ask her, "Great, but what are we producing?"
When someone suggests an idea for a business you can start, ask yourself, "What am I producing?"
If there is no production, there is no money—no real, long term money.
A FLAWED PLAN
I always tell my clients that any plan that relies too much on another person's whim, good will or largess for its success is inherently a flawed plan. It may provide a short-term stop-gap measure, but there is no dependable future or control built in.
Selling someone the hope or possibility of doubling their money based on the internal programming of a slot machine is not exchanging something of value. It's essentially giving nothing in return. It's a rip-off.
Sure, you can call it entertainment if you wish, but at the end of the day, you've not improved your lot in life, because you're not exchanging anything of real value that can grow, improve your reputation, bolster your self-esteem or raise your standard of living. Furthermore, since it is not based on anything over which you have any creative input or control, you cannot use it dependably to improve the welfare of the masses.
It's not an industry into which any average person of entrepreneurial aspirations but meager means can venture. It’s a limited industry with power concentrated in the hands of the few.
Having people running around throwing their money into slot machines doesn't automatically improve the lot of the general population. Sure, there may be some collateral spending in stores, new jobs in the hospitality/service sectors, but by far the biggest winners are the casino owners. From my own limited travel experience, I've been to Atlantic City, in New Jersey, and witnessed stark poverty just beyond the fences of prosperous casinos. There’s no guaranteed “trickle down.”
The danger in basing economic growth on simply providing a place for people to throw their money into slot machines is that the world doesn't need another place to do that - least of all a place way out in the Pacific Ocean. Any place with better entertainment, a more convenient location or nicer hotels, will win the competition for tourist dollars.
And, it would be sad to think that the only thing this beautiful land and its people have to offer is a place for people to gamble money in search of an easy payoff. It's a slap in the face of the traditional creativity, natural beauty, the spirit of self-sufficiency that have existed here for centuries.
A NEW DIALOGUE
If you continue to perpetuate the idea that we can be saved only by someone else's money, then those presently without money are rendered powerless in the discussion. If, on the other hand, you change the dialogue to discussions of finding our "value" in the marketplace, then everyone can participate.
Without such a new dialogue, and the real, long-term solutions that come with it, we'll perpetuate lowered expectations, and witness the downward spiral of self-esteem and hope that comes with the exclusive dependency on others for salvation. When a people subjugate themselves and their inherent value to the value of a dollar, there are things you cannot see that will be visible only in their absence. For a nation’s humanity, once lost can never be replaced.
IV. SUMMARY
Money is a means of exchange.
Exchange is the challenge to be solved.
Products and Services form the basis of Exchange
No production=No Money
The only real question, therefore, is: What Are YOU Producing?
About the Author:
Walt F.J. Goodridge is known as the Passion Prophet. He is author of 15 books including Turn Your Passion Into Profit, and helps people discover, develop and profit from the pursuit of their passions. Take his Passionpreneuer test at www.passionprofit.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Permanent Link: http://www.isnare.com/?aid=175449&ca=Finances
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
New York, NY, U.S.A.
http://www.passionprofit.com/
PREAMBLE: The only way to take control of your life, raise your standard of living and move beyond merely surviving is to create your own unique product or service that you offer to increasing numbers of people in exchange for the things of value that you desire. This simple formula applies to countries as well as people. A self-sufficient economy has its own products or services of value to export to the world. Similarly, a self-sufficient individual has something of value to exchange in the global marketplace. That thing of value is based on your natural talent, skill, or interest - in other words, your passion.
NOTE: The following article was originally written for the citizens of the island nation of Saipan. It therefore includes references of a nature unique to that nation's economic situation.
When you think of what can help you elevate yourself from your current economic situation, it's important not to lose sight of a few important ideas and truths about money, value, and economics.
I. MONEY IS A MEANS OF EXCHANGE
No one ever gives you money except in exchange for something of value.
II. EXCHANGE IS THE REAL ISSUE
Don't let anyone mislead you. The only reason we focus on money is simply because the world has agreed that money is the basis of exchange that we're going to use. I have eggs. You have a cow. If you want what I have, and I want what you have, then we can exchange my eggs for your cow. But you may not want eggs. You may want something that I do not have. And I may not want a cow. I may want something you do not have, like a car. So we all agree that eggs are worth a certain amount of money, and that a car is worth a certain amount of money. I can now sell my eggs for money, and get the money to buy a car. But all I really did was trade eggs for a car, using money as the means of exchange. So it's not the money that's driving the economic engine, it's the exchange.
Now, then, there are four ways that one can engage in the process of exchange:
- You can accept money but give nothing in return (rip-off)
- You can accept money and give a partial or corrupted version of what was expected. (short-changing)
- You can accept money and give exactly what was ordered. (fair exchange)
- You can accept money and give more than was expected. (exchange in abundance)
III. PRODUCTS ARE THE BASIS OF EXCHANGE
"When a whole society demands a high
standard of living and yet doesn’t concentrate
on the personal production of exchangeable
products, it is finished."—The Dynamics of Money
So how does one engage in exchange with the world? Simple. You need a product. A PRODUCT can be defined as “a high quality service or article in the hands of the consumer in exchange for a valuable. It is something that can be exchanged with other activities in return for support.”
IV. THE QUESTION IS…
So the single, most important question to be asked of those who steer the course of nations, its citizens, investors, business owners, and potential Saipanpreneurs is: WHAT ARE WE PRODUCING?
When someone suggests a solution to the economic situation, ask him, "Great idea, but what are we producing?"
When someone suggests an idea for how to get loans and federal assistance, ask her, "Great, but what are we producing?"
When someone suggests an idea for a business you can start, ask yourself, "What am I producing?"
If there is no production, there is no money—no real, long term money.
A FLAWED PLAN
I always tell my clients that any plan that relies too much on another person's whim, good will or largess for its success is inherently a flawed plan. It may provide a short-term stop-gap measure, but there is no dependable future or control built in.
Selling someone the hope or possibility of doubling their money based on the internal programming of a slot machine is not exchanging something of value. It's essentially giving nothing in return. It's a rip-off.
Sure, you can call it entertainment if you wish, but at the end of the day, you've not improved your lot in life, because you're not exchanging anything of real value that can grow, improve your reputation, bolster your self-esteem or raise your standard of living. Furthermore, since it is not based on anything over which you have any creative input or control, you cannot use it dependably to improve the welfare of the masses.
It's not an industry into which any average person of entrepreneurial aspirations but meager means can venture. It’s a limited industry with power concentrated in the hands of the few.
Having people running around throwing their money into slot machines doesn't automatically improve the lot of the general population. Sure, there may be some collateral spending in stores, new jobs in the hospitality/service sectors, but by far the biggest winners are the casino owners. From my own limited travel experience, I've been to Atlantic City, in New Jersey, and witnessed stark poverty just beyond the fences of prosperous casinos. There’s no guaranteed “trickle down.”
The danger in basing economic growth on simply providing a place for people to throw their money into slot machines is that the world doesn't need another place to do that - least of all a place way out in the Pacific Ocean. Any place with better entertainment, a more convenient location or nicer hotels, will win the competition for tourist dollars.
And, it would be sad to think that the only thing this beautiful land and its people have to offer is a place for people to gamble money in search of an easy payoff. It's a slap in the face of the traditional creativity, natural beauty, the spirit of self-sufficiency that have existed here for centuries.
A NEW DIALOGUE
If you continue to perpetuate the idea that we can be saved only by someone else's money, then those presently without money are rendered powerless in the discussion. If, on the other hand, you change the dialogue to discussions of finding our "value" in the marketplace, then everyone can participate.
Without such a new dialogue, and the real, long-term solutions that come with it, we'll perpetuate lowered expectations, and witness the downward spiral of self-esteem and hope that comes with the exclusive dependency on others for salvation. When a people subjugate themselves and their inherent value to the value of a dollar, there are things you cannot see that will be visible only in their absence. For a nation’s humanity, once lost can never be replaced.
IV. SUMMARY
Money is a means of exchange.
Exchange is the challenge to be solved.
Products and Services form the basis of Exchange
No production=No Money
The only real question, therefore, is: What Are YOU Producing?
About the Author:
Walt F.J. Goodridge is known as the Passion Prophet. He is author of 15 books including Turn Your Passion Into Profit, and helps people discover, develop and profit from the pursuit of their passions. Take his Passionpreneuer test at www.passionprofit.com
Source: www.isnare.com
Permanent Link: http://www.isnare.com/?aid=175449&ca=Finances
Corporate Blog of Elite - Professional Translation Services serving ASEAN & East Asia
Wednesday, January 21, 2009
Language family
A language family is a group of languages related by descent from a common ancestor, called the proto-language of that family.
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| Examples of language families (click the map to view) |
As with biological families, the evidence of relationship is observable shared characteristics. An accurately identified family is a phylogenetic unit; that is, all its members derive from a common ancestor, and all attested descendants of that ancestor are included in the family. Most of the world's languages are known to belong to language families. For the others, family relationships are not known or only tentatively proposed.
The concept of language families is based on the assumption that over time languages gradually diverge into dialects and then into new languages. However, linguistic ancestry is less clear-cut than biological ancestry, because there are extreme cases of languages mixing due to language contact in conquest or trade, whereas biological species normally don't interbreed. In the formation of creole languages and other types of mixed languages, there may be no one ancestor of a given language. In addition, a number of sign languages have developed in isolation and may have no relatives at all. However, these cases are relatively rare and most languages can be unambiguously classified.
The common ancestor of a language family is seldom known directly, since most languages have a relatively short recorded history. However, it is possible to recover many features of a proto-language by applying the comparative method—a reconstructive procedure worked out by 19th century linguist August Schleicher. This can demonstrate the validity of many of the proposed families in the list of language families. For example, the reconstructible common ancestor of the Indo-European language family is called Proto-Indo-European. Proto-Indo-European is not attested by written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing.
Sometimes, though, a proto-language can be identified with a historically known language. For instance, dialects of Old Norse are the proto-language of Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Faroese and Icelandic. Likewise, the Appendix Probi depicts Proto-Romance, a language almost unattested due to the prestige of Classical Latin, a highly stylised literary dialect not representative of the speech of ordinary people.
Language families can be divided into smaller phylogenetic units, conventionally referred to as branches of the family because the history of a language family is often represented as a tree diagram. However, the term family is not restricted to any one level of this "tree". The Germanic family, for example, is a branch of the Indo-European family. Some taxonomists restrict the term family to a certain level, but there is little consensus in how to do so. Those who affix such labels also subdivide branches into groups, and groups into complexes. The terms superfamily, phylum, and stock are applied to proposed groupings of language families whose status as phylogenetic units is generally considered to be unsubstantiated by accepted historical linguistic methods.
Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as isolates. A language isolated in its own branch within a family, such as Greek within Indo-European, is often also called an isolate; but the meaning of isolate in such cases is usually clarified. For instance, Greek might be referred to as an Indo-European isolate. The isolation of modern Greek, however, is not typical of its relationship to other languages at other times in its history. Several Greek dialects evolved out of the larger Indo-European language group; and later, Greek words influenced many other languages. By contrast, the Basque language is a living modern language and a near perfect isolate. The history of its lexical, phonetic, and syntactic structures is not known, and is not easily associated to other languages, though it has been influenced by Romance languages in the region, like Castilian Spanish, Occitan, and French.
Connections within and between language families are often used by geneticists and archaeologists, in combination with DNA evidence and archaeological evidence, to help reconstruct prehistoric migrations and other prehistoric developments, such as the spread of the Neolithic complex of farming, herding, pottery, and polished stone utensils. For the scientists concerned, this is treacherous but necessary ground: the linguistic evidence is often vital to resolving the problems concerned, but must be handled with caution, for two reasons: first, it is often a delicate matter to relate languages to archaeological cultures, on the one hand, and to genetic lineages, on the other; second, many proposed language relationships are controversial, which often requires non-linguists to take a stand on linguistic issues, a professionally uncomfortable but often inevitable situation.
The Linguist List is now working on a National Science Foundation funded project entitled Multitree, to build a database of all hypothesized language relationships, with a full searchable bibliography for each.
Contents |
Grouping
Membership of languages in the same language family is determined by a genetic relationship. The languages involved present shared retentions, i.e., features of the proto-language (or reflexes of such features) that cannot be explained better by chance or borrowing (convergence). Membership in a branch/group/subgroup within a language family is determined by shared innovations which are presumed to have taken place in a common ancestor. For example, what makes Germanic languages "Germanic" is that large parts of the structures of all the languages so designated can be stated just once for all of them. In other words, they can be treated as an innovation that took place in Proto-Germanic, the source of all the Germanic languages.
Shared innovations acquired by borrowing or other means, are not considered genetic and have no bearing with the language family concept. It has been asserted, for example, that many of the more striking features shared by Italic languages (Latin, Oscan, Umbrian, etc.) might well be "areal features". More certainly, very similar-looking alterations in the systems of long vowels in the West Germanic languages greatly postdate any possible notion of a proto-language innovation (and cannot readily be regarded as "areal", either, since English and continental West Germanic were not a linguistic area). In a similar vein, there are many similar unique innovations in Germanic and Baltic/Slavic that are far more likely to be areal features than traceable to a common proto-language. But legitimate uncertainty about whether shared innovations are areal features, coincidence, or inheritance from a common ancestor, leads to disagreement over the proper subdivisions of any large language family.
A sprachbund is a geographic area having several languages that feature common linguistic structures. The similarities between those languages are caused by language contact, not by chance or common origin, and are not recognized as criteria that define a language family.
See also
- Auxiliary language
- Constructed language
- Endangered language
- Extinct language
- ISO 639-5
- Language families (Ethnologue)
- List of language families
- List of language families by percentage of speakers in mankind
- List of languages by number of native speakers
- Proto-language
Bibliography
- Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
- Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). The Languages of Africa (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.
- Harrison, K. David. (2007) When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Ross, Malcom. (2005). Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages. In: Andrew Pawley, Robert Attenborough, Robin Hide and Jack Golson, eds, Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples (PDF)
- Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). A guide to the world's languages. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).
- Voegelin, C. F.; & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. New York: Elsevier.
External links
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family
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